Notes in Week 3

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Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Ammonia}} is formed due to metabolism of {{c2::amino acids}}
Published	09/10/2023	In the urea cycle, {{c1::ammonia}} is converted to urea
Published	09/10/2023	The urea cycle takes place in the {{c1::mitochondria}} of the {{c2::liver}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Glutamine synthetase}} adds {{c2::ammonia}} to {{c3::glutamate}} to form {{c4::glutamine}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Glutaminase}} cleaves glutamine to form {{c2::ammonia}} and {{c3::glutamate}}
Published	09/10/2023	In the {{c1::skeletal muscle}}, {{c2::glutamate dehydrogenase}} combines {{c3::alpha-ketoglutarate}} and {{c3::ammonia}} to form {…
Published	09/10/2023	In the liver cell, {{c1::alanine}} and {{c1::alpha-ketoglutarate}} is used to form {{c2::glutamate}} and {{c2::pyruvate}}
Published	09/10/2023	Glutamate can either form {{c1::ammonia}} via {{c2::glutamate dehydrogenase}} OR {{c3::aspartate}} via {{c4::{{c3::aspartate}} tra…
Published	09/10/2023	Urea is made of 2 {{c1::nitrogen}} groups and 1 {{c2::carbonyl}} group
Published	09/10/2023	In the 1st step of the urea cycle, {{c1::ATP, CO2, and ammonia::3 things}} combine to form {{c2::carbamoyl phosphate}} via {{c3::CPS1}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::N-acetylglutamate}} allosterically activates {{c2::CPS1}} by allowing it to process urea more efficiently.
Published	09/10/2023	In the 2nd step of the urea cycle, {{c1::ornithine}} and {{c1::carbamoyl phosphate}} react to form {{c2::citrulline}}
Published	09/10/2023	In the 3rd step of the urea cycle, {{c1::citrulline}} and {{c1::aspartate}} combine to form {{c2::argino-succinate}}
Published	09/10/2023	In the 4th step of the urea cycle, {{c1::arginino-succinate}} is separated into {{c2::fumarate}} and {{c2::arginine}}
Published	09/10/2023	In the urea cycle, {{c1::fumarate}} is eventually converted into {{c2::aspartate}} via the intermediates {{c3::malate}} and {{c3::…
Published	09/10/2023	In the last step of the urea cycle, {{c1::arginine}} is converted into both {{c2::urea}} and {{c2::ornithine}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Small, non-polar}} molecules go through the cell membrane via {{c2::passive diffusion}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Small, polar}} and {{c2::large, non-polar}} molecules go through the cell membrane via {{c3::passive diffusion}}, but do so slowly
Published	09/10/2023	Molecules that are unable to passively diffuse through the cell membrane include {{c1::large, polar}} molecules and {{c2::highly polar/charg…
Published	09/10/2023	The three types of endocytosis are{{c1::phagocytosis}}{{c2::pinocytosis}}{{c3::receptor-mediated endocytosis}}
Published	09/10/2023	In pinocytosis, the cell invaginates {{c1::solutes}} to form a {{c2::vesicle}}
Published	09/10/2023	In receptor-mediated endocytosis, {{c1::endosomes}} are formed, which can separate the molecule from its {{c2::receptor}} in a process calle…
Published	09/10/2023	In glycolysis, glucose is prevented from escaping the cell via {{c1::kinase}}, which phosphorylate the glucose.
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Hexokinase/glucokinase}} converts glucose into {{c2::G6P}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::G6P}} is converted to {{c2::F6P}} via {{c3::phosphoglucoisomerase}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::F6P}} is converted into {{c2::F-1,6-bisphosphate}} via {{c3::phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK1)}}
Published	09/10/2023	The rate-limiting step of glycolysis is the conversion of {{c1::F6P}} to {{c1::F-1,6-BP}}
Published	09/10/2023	PFK1 is inhibited by {{c1::glucagon}} due to a decreased activity of {{c2::PFK2}}
Published	09/10/2023	PFK1 is sped up by {{c1::insulin}} due to an increase in activity of {{c2::PFK2}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP)}} is converted via {{c2::aldolase}} into {{c3::glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)}} and {{c4::…
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::G3P}} molecules are converted via {{c3::{{c1::G3P}}-dehydrogenase}} to form {{c2::1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG)}}, with {{c4:…
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::1,3-BPG}} is converted into {{c2::3-phosphoglycerate}} via {{c3::phosphoglycerate kinase}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::3-phosphoglycerate}} is converted into {{c2::2-phosphoglycerate}} via {{c3::mutase}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::2-phosphoglycerate}} is converted into {{c2::phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)}} via {{c3::enolase}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::PEP}} is converted into {{c2::pyruvate}} via {{c3::pyruvate kinase}}. This generates {{c4::2 ATP}}
Published	09/10/2023	Pyruvate kinase is upregulated by {{c1::F-1,6-BP}} and downregulated by increased {{c2::ATP}} and {{c2::alanine}}
Published	09/10/2023	The 3 irreversible reactions of glycolysis are the ones catalyzed by {{c1::hexokinase}}, {{c2::phosphofructokinase-1}}, and {{c3::pyruv…
Published	09/10/2023	The three primary ketone bodies are {{c1::acetoacetate}}, {{c2::B-hydroxybutyrate}}, and {{c3::acetone}}
Published	09/10/2023	Ketones are produced in physiological states such as {{c1::fasting}} and {{c1::exercise}} or pathological states such as {{c2::type 1 d…
Published	09/10/2023	After {{c1::1-3}} days, the body will generally run out of {{c2::glucose}} and rely on {{c3::fatty acids}} for energy. The exception is the&…
Published	09/10/2023	Ketone body synthesis begins with 2 {{c1::acetyl-CoA}} molecules joined together by the enzyme {{c2::acetyl-CoA acyl-transferase}} to form&n…
Published	09/10/2023	The 2nd step of ketone synthesis occurs when {{c1::acetoacetyl-CoA}} and {{c1::acetyl-CoA}} combine to form {{c2::3-hydroxy-3-methylglu…
Published	09/10/2023	The rate-limiting step of ketone synthesis is facilitated via the enzyme {{c1::HMG-CoA synthase}}
Published	09/12/2023	In the 3rd step of ketone synthesis, {{c1::HMG-CoA}} is converted into {{c2::acetoacetate}} and {{c2::acetyl-CoA}} via the enzyme {{c3:…
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Acetoacetate}} can either be converted into {{c2::B-hydroxybutyrate}} via {{c3::{{c2::B-hydroxybutyrate}} dehydrogenase}} (which uses&…
Published	09/10/2023	The only cells that can't use ketone bodies are {{c1::RBC's}} because they lack {{c2::mitochondria}}
Published	09/10/2023	After ketones are transferred into peripheral tissues, they are converted back into {{c1::acetyl-CoA}} which can then enter the {{c2::citric…
Published	09/10/2023	After entering the peripheral tissue, {{c1::acetoacetate}} and {{c1::succinyl-CoA}} is converted into {{c2::acetoacetyl-CoA}} and {{c2::succ…
Published	09/10/2023	To make longer fatty acids like {{c1::palmitoyl-CoA}}, many {{c2::acetyl-CoA}} molecules are combined. This requires the donation of H atoms…
Published	09/10/2023	The {{c1::citrate shuttle}} occurs because {{c2::acetyl-CoA}} must be converted into {{c3::citrate}} in order to cross over into the&nb…
Published	09/10/2023	The rate-limiting step of fatty acid synthesis is facilitated by the enzyme {{c1::acetyl-CoA carboxylase}}, where {{c2::acetyl-CoA}} is conv…
Published	09/10/2023	In the hormonal regulation of fatty acid synthesis, {{c1::insulin}} activates the enzyme {{c2::phosphatase 2}}, which {{c3::increa…
Published	09/10/2023	In the hormonal regulation of fatty acid synthesis, {{c1::glucagon}} activates the enzyme {{c2::AMP-dependent kinase}}, which {{c3…
Published	09/10/2023	In allosteric regulation of fatty acid synthesis, {{c1::citrate}} will enhance fatty acid synthesis, while {{c2::fatty acids}} will decrease…
Published	09/10/2023	To form palmitoyl-CoA, you need {{c1::8}} acetyl-CoA molecules and {{c2::14}} NADPH molecules
Published	09/10/2023	In the pancreatic beta cells, the {{c1::K+}} channels are normally open, and the {{c2::Ca2+}} channels are normally closed
Published	09/10/2023	In the pancreatic beta cells, when glucose enters the cell and increases ATP, the {{c1::K+}} channels close and {{c3::depolarize}} the cell, caus…
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Sulfonylureas::Medication}} affect the {{c2::K+}} channels by causing them to {{c3::close}}
Published	09/10/2023	1st gen sulfonylureas include {{c1::chlorpropamide}}, {{c2::tolbutamide}}, and {{c3::tolazamide}}
Published	09/10/2023	2nd gen sulfonylureas contain {{c1::glipizide}}, {{c2::glyburide}}, and {{c3::glimepiride}}
Published	09/10/2023	Sulfonylureas are contraindicated for {{c1::type 1 diabetes}} and {{c2::diabetic ketoacidosis}}
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Meglitinides}} are generally used to control {{c2::postprandial glucose}} levels
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::Incretins}} are hormones that decrease blood glucose by stimulating {{c2::insulin release}} after a meal. This is done by acting as&nb…
Published	09/10/2023	{{c1::DPP-4 inhibitors}} work by preventing proteases from breaking down {{c2::GLP-1}}
Published	09/10/2023	Contraindications for DPP-4 inhibitors include {{c1::hepatic/renal}} impairment or during {{c2::pregnancy/breastfeeding}}
Published	09/10/2023	1st gen sulfonylureas can cause {{c1::disulfiram-like}} reactions
Published	09/12/2023	Are one of the side effects of sulfonylureas hypoglycemia?{{c1::Yes::yes or no}}
Published	09/12/2023	Sulfonylureas will generally lead to weight {{c1::gain}}
Published	09/12/2023	GLP-1 receptor agonists will generally lead to weight {{c1::loss}}
Published	09/12/2023	DPP-4 inhibitors will generally lead to weight {{c1::neutrality}}
Published	09/12/2023	Semen is {{c1::alkaline}} in order to neutralize the {{c1::acidic}} vaginal fluids
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Capacitation}} is the process where sperm removes its {{c2::glycoprotein coat}} covering the {{c3::acrosome}}. This allows it to relea…
Published	09/12/2023	When the sperm binds the egg, it has to make its way past the {{c1::corona radiata}} and {{c2::zona pellucida}}
Published	09/12/2023	The acrosomal reaction has 2 steps1. The release of {{c1::acrosin}}2. After {{c2::actin}} anchors the sperm, the sperm and egg {{c3::fuse}}
Published	09/12/2023	When sperm binds to the egg, {{c1::Ca2+}} levels rise, leading to the {{c2::cortical}} reaction and formation of the {{c3::hyaline laye…
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Syngamy}} is the moment in embryonic development when the {{c2::zygote}} is first formed and is a single cell
Published	09/12/2023	Sperm's journey to egg:{{c1::Vagina}} --> {{c2::cervix}} --> {{c3::uterus}} --> {{c4::uterine tube}}
Published	09/12/2023	Zygotes first undergo cleavage into the 2-celled {{c1::blastomere}}
Published	09/12/2023	Zygotes cleave into the {{c2::16-celled::# of cells}} {{c1::morula}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::blastocyst}} is made of the water-filled {{c2::blastocoel}}, the surrounding {{c3::trophoblast}}, and the inner {{c4::em…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::corpus luteum}} develops in the {{c3::ovary}} and is reponsible for the release of {{c2::progesterone}}
Published	09/12/2023	The blastocyst binds to the uterine wall with the help of {{c1::L-selectin}}, leading to proliferation of the {{c2::syncytiotrophoblast}}
Published	09/12/2023	In week 2, the blastocyst's outer layer separates into 2 layers:The {{c1::cytotrophoblast}} with {{c2::1::#}} nucleus/nucleiThe {{c1::syncyt…
Published	09/12/2023	At day {{c1::12}}, the blastocyst undergoes the {{c2::decidual}} reaction, where high levels of {{c3::progesterone}} causes the {{…
Published	09/12/2023	At day {{c1::14}}, the cells of the {{c2::syncytiotrophoblast}} protrude to form {{c3::primary villi}}, leaving empty spaces called&nbs…
Published	09/12/2023	At day {{c1::14}}, the inner embryoblast cells separate into 2 layers called the {{c2::bilaminar embryonic disc}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::hypoblast}} of the bilaminar embryonic disc is located {{c2::ventrally::ventrally or dorsally}} and lines the {{c3::yolk sac}…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::epiblast}} of the bilaminar embryonic disc is located {{c2::dorsally::ventrally or dorsally}} and becomes the {{c3::germ laye…
Published	09/12/2023	On day 14, some of the epiblast cells will form the {{c1::extraembryonic mesoderm}} cells, which create space for the {{c2::chorionic cavity…
Published	09/12/2023	During the first steps of gastrulation, the {{c1::primitive groove}} is formed on the {{c2::caudal}} end of the embryo
Published	09/12/2023	At the cranial end of the primitive groove, the {{c1::primitive node}} is formed, with a dimple called the {{c2::primitive pit}}. Toget…
Published	09/12/2023	During gastrulation, the {{c1::trilaminar disc}} is formed, made up of the embryonic {{c2::endoderm}}, {{c2::mesoderm}}, and {{c2::ecto…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::cranial}} bilaminar region forms the {{c2::oropharyngeal}} membrane
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::caudal}} bilaminar region forms the {{c2::cloacal}} membrane
Published	09/12/2023	At day {{c1::17}}, the {{c2::notochord}} is formed
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::notochord}} influences {{c2::embryo folding}} and secretes the {{c3::sonic hedgehog}} protein. This allows for cell {{c4…
Published	09/12/2023	On day {{c1::20}}, the mesoderm cells around the notochord differentiate into the {{c2::paraxial}}, {{c3::intermediate}}, and {{c4…
Published	09/12/2023	Neurulation occurs on day {{c1::20}}. This starts with the {{c2::neural plate}} folding to form a {{c3::neural groove}} with {{c4:…
Published	09/12/2023	During week 3, {{c1::extraembryonic mesoderm}} migrate to form {{c2::secondary villi}}, which differentiate into the collective {{c3::v…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::amnion::fetal membrane}} is formed on day {{c2::8}} and is made of {{c3::epiblasts}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::yolk sac::fetal membrane}} is formed on day {{c2::9}} and is made of {{c3::hypoblasts}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::chorion::fetal membrane}} is made of the {{c2::extraembryonic mesoderm}}, the {{c3::cytotrophoblast}}, and the {{c4::syn…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::chorionic villi::fetal membrane}} eventually helps form the {{c2::placenta}}
Published	09/12/2023	In week 3, the yolk sac separates into the {{c1::vitelline duct}}, {{c2::gut tube}}, and the {{c3::yolk sac}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::allantois::fetal membrane}} becomes a canal for {{c2::urine}}
Published	09/12/2023	Eventually, the {{c1::amnion}} and {{c1::chorion}} fuse to form the {{c2::amniotic sac}}
Published	09/12/2023	During week 4, the {{c1::allantois}}, {{c3::vitelline duct}}, and the {{c4::body stalk}} combine to form the {{c2::umbilical cord}…
Published	09/12/2023	On the dorsal side of the neural tube, there are {{c1::neural crest}} cells.
Published	09/12/2023	When the cranial and caudal {{c1::neuropores}} seal, the {{c2::surface ectoderm}} starts to form the {{c3::ears}} and {{c3::eyes}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::otic placode}} of the surface ectoderm develops into the {{c2::cochlea}} and {{c2::inner ear}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::lens placode}} of the surface ectoderm develops into the {{c2::lens}} and {{c2::cornea}}
Published	09/12/2023	The ectoderm and neural crest cells form the {{c5::epidermis}}, {{c1::CNS}}, {{c2::PNS}}, {{c3::sensory epithelium of ears, nose, eyes,…
Published	09/12/2023	The paraxial mesoderm forms paired blocks of tissues called {{c1::somites}}.
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::dermatome}} is part of the {{c2::paraxial mesoderm}} and forms the {{c3::dermis}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::myotome}} is part of the {{c2::paraxial mesoderm}} and forms the {{c3::muscles}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::slcerotome}} is part of the {{c2::paraxial mesoderm}} and forms the {{c3::bones/cartilage}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::intermediate mesoderm}} forms the {{c2::adrenal cortex}}, {{c3::kidneys}}, and the {{c4::testes/ovaries}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::somatic/parietal mesoderm}} is part of the {{c2::lateral mesoderm}} and forms the {{c3::parietal pleura}} and the {{c3::…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::intraembryonic coelom}} is part of the {{c2::lateral mesoderm}} and forms the {{c3::thoracic/abdominal cavities}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::splanchnic/visceral mesoderm}} is part of the {{c2::lateral mesoderm}} and forms the {{c3::visceral pleura}} and the {{c…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c2::endoderm}} only develops {{c1::2/3}} of the anal canal, the other {{c1::1/3}} of which is formed by the {{c2::ectoderm}}. The…
Published	09/12/2023	The endoderm forms the {{c1::GI}} and {{c1::respiratory}} tracts, the {{c2::liver, pancreas, and gallbladder::3 intestinal organs}}, and the…
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Steroid}} hormones are made by the {{c2::adrenal glands}} and {{c3::gonads}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Peptidic}} hormones are {{c2::hydrophilic::hydrophobic/philic}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Amino-acid}} hormones are derived from {{c2::tyrosine}} and behave {{c3::differently}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::hypothalamus}} is the link between the nervous and endocrine system
Published	09/12/2023	The hypothalamus either acts on the {{c1::anterior}} pituitary to secrete hormones or stores its own hormones in the {{c1::posterior}} pitui…
Published	09/12/2023	Pathway of TRHTRH from {{c1::hypothalamus}} --> {{c2::TSH}} from {{c2::anterior pituitary}} -->  {{c3::thyroid hormones}} from {{…
Published	09/12/2023	Pathway of CRHCRH from hypothalamus --> {{c1::ATCH}} from {{c1::anterior pituitary}} --> {{c2::cortisol}} from {{c2::adrenal…
Published	09/12/2023	Pathway of GnRHGnRH from hypothalamus --> {{c1::gonadotropins (LH and FSH)}} from {{c1::anterior pituitary}} --> {{c2::sex hormon…
Published	09/12/2023	Pathway of GHRHGHRH in hypothalamus --> {{c1::growth hormone}} in {{c1::anterior pituitary}} --> growth of {{c2::long bones/tissues}}
Published	09/12/2023	Inhibitory hypothalamic hormones include {{c1::GHIH (or somatostatin)}} and {{c2::prolactin inhibiting factor (or dopamine)}}
Published	09/12/2023	The hormones in the posterior pituitary include {{c1::ADH/vasopressin}} and {{c2::oxytocin}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Pineal glands}} release the hormone {{c2::melatonin}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::parafollicular cells}} produce {{c2::calcitonin}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Calcitonin::Hormone}} and {{c1::parathyroid hormone::hormone}} are involved in {{c2::calcium}}, {{c2::phosphate}}, and bone metab…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::adrenal cortex}} produces {{c2::aldosterone}}, {{c3::cortisol}}, and {{c4::sex hormone precursors}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::adrenal medulla}} produces {{c2::adrenaline}} and {{c2::noradrenaline}}
Published	09/12/2023	The endocrine glands of the pancreas are called {{c1::islets of langerhans}}
Published	09/12/2023	Proinsulin is made of 3 peptides, with the {{c1::B-chain}} and {{c1::A-chain}} being combined via 2 {{c2::disulfide bonds}} to form ins…
Published	09/12/2023	Stimulatory factors of insulin:Hormones {{c1::glucagon}} and {{c1::cortisol}}Increased {{c2::fatty acids}}{{c3::Acetylcholine}}
Published	09/12/2023	The inhibitory factors of insulin are {{c1::norepinephrine}} and {{c2::somatostatin}}
Published	09/12/2023	Stimulatory factors for glucagon include {{c1::adrenaline/epinephrine}} and {{c2::cholecystokinin}}
Published	09/12/2023	Inhibitory factors for glucagon include {{c1::somatostatin}}
Published	09/12/2023	The receptor for glucagon is a {{c1::7 pass transmembrane}} receptor
Status	Last Update	Fields