Notes in Week 3

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Published	09/12/2023	When ATP is used for {{c2::RNA synthesis}}, energy is derived from breaking the bond between the {{c1::alpha and beta phosphate}}
Published	09/12/2023	When ATP is used for {{c2::muscle contraction}}, energy is derived from breaking the bond between {{c1::beta and gamma phosphate}}
Published	09/12/2023	The 2 main sources of ATP at rest are {{c1::carbohydrates}} and {{c2::triglycerides}}
Published	09/12/2023	Calories per g of different molecules:Carbs: {{c1::4}} cal/gTriglycerides/ketone bodies: {{c2::9}} cal/gProteins: {{c3::4}} cal/gAlcoho…
Published	09/12/2023	Triglycerides/ketones require {{c1::mitochondria}} to break them down
Published	09/12/2023	Which organ requires glucose (can't use fatty acids) despite having mitochondria?{{c1::brain}}Why?
Published	09/12/2023	What type of meal will increase release of both insulin and glucagon?{{c1::high-protein}}
Published	09/12/2023	Aerobic respiration lasts {{c1::indefinitely}} and produces {{c2::30}} ATP/glucose
Published	09/12/2023	Anaerobic respiration lasts {{c1::30-40 seconds}} and produces {{c2::2}} ATP/glucose
Published	09/12/2023	{{c2::Creatine phosphate}} is reponsible for {{c1::replenishing ATP}} before glycolysis
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Creatinine}} levels are indicative of {{c2::kidney}} health
Published	09/12/2023	In the {{c4::muscle}}, glucose is stored as {{c1::glycogen}}, about {{c3::400}}g, and available for use in the {{c2::muscle only}}
Published	09/12/2023	In the {{c1::liver}}, the glucose is stored as {{c2::glycogen}}, about {{c3::100}}g, and for use {{c4::throughout the body}}
Published	09/12/2023	In the {{c1::adipose tissue}}, glucose is stored as {{c2::triglycerides}}. It is for use in the {{c3::rest of the body}} as {{c4::…
Published	09/12/2023	Fatty acids are {{c1::insoluble::soluble/insoluble}} and transported bound to {{c2::albumin}}
Published	09/12/2023	Insulin promotes {{c1::storage}} of glycogen/TGs
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Glucagon}} and {{c1::epinephrine}} (hormones) promote {{c2::degradation}} of glycogen/triglycerides
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Glycerol}}, {{c2::fatty acids}}, and {{c3::cholesterol}} have some {{c4::polar groups}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Triglycerides}} and {{c2::cholesteryl}} ester are {{c3::hydrophobic}}.
Published	09/12/2023	What molecule can make fatty acids but not glucose?{{c1::Acetate}}
Published	09/12/2023	Triglyceride synthesis/degradation involve addition/removal of {{c1::2}} carbons at a time
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::After}} meals, the intestines use dietary lipids to package {{c2::chylomicrons}} and releases them into blood
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Between}} meals, the {{c2::liver}} synthesizes fatty acids and cholesterol, packages them into {{c3::VLDL}} and releases them into the…
Published	09/12/2023	"Bad" cholesterol is {{c1::LDL}}
Published	09/12/2023	"Good" cholesterol is {{c1::HDL}}
Published	09/12/2023	LDL can lead to {{c1::plaque}} formation
Published	09/12/2023	HDL absorbs {{c1::cholesterol}} and takes it back to the {{c2::liver}}
Published	09/12/2023	Lovastatin decreases blood cholesterol by {{c1::inhibiting cholesterol synthesis}} in the {{c2::liver}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Statins}} reduce activity of the enzyme {{c2::HMG-CoA reductase}}
Published	09/12/2023	Chylomicrons are involved in {{c1::transport}} of {{c2::dietary triglycerides}} and {{c2::cholesterol}}
Published	09/12/2023	What is the immediate precursor of plaque cholesterol?{{c1::oxidized LDL}}
Published	09/12/2023	When plaque forms, the {{c1::lumen}} narrows, and a {{c2::thrombus}} can form
Published	09/12/2023	High cellular cholesterol leads to {{c1::less}} LDL receptors
Published	09/12/2023	{{c2::Oxidized LDL}} is taken up by {{c3::macrophages}}, transforming them into {{c1::foam cells}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Foam cells}} promote proliferation of {{c2::smooth muscle cell}} and calcification of {{c3::plaque}}
Published	09/12/2023	Can you make glucose from ethanol?{{c1::NO}}
Published	09/12/2023	The two enzymes that convert alcohol to acetate:{{c1::alcohol dehydrogenase}}{{c2::acetaldehyde dehydrogenase}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Fomepizole}} is used to treat {{c2::methanol}} or {{c2::ethylene glycol}} poisoning
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Disulfiram}} is used to treat {{c2::alcoholism}}. Leads to build up of {{c3::acetaldehyde}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Oxidizing}} agents, high {{c2::serum LDL}} levels promote {{c3::plaque}} formation
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Reducing}} agents, low {{c2::LDL}} and {{c2::cellular cholesterol}} levels, and high {{c3::HDL}} levels and {{c3::LDL recept…
Published	09/12/2023	Concentration of {{c1::ketone bodies}} are high during {{c2::starvation}} or {{c2::type 1 diabetes}}
Published	09/12/2023	Problem with ketone bodies is {{c1::acidosis}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Statins::Drug}} decrease {{c2::blood cholesterol}} and {{c2::LDL}} levels
Published	09/12/2023	{{c2::Anti-trypsins}} prevent proteins from being {{c1::degraded}}
Published	09/12/2023	Mitochondrial DNA is {{c1::circular::circular or linear}}
Published	09/12/2023	Protein synthesis takes place in the {{c1::cytoplasm}} and {{c2::mitochondria}}
Published	09/12/2023	If there is no signals in the endomembrane system, the proteins end up {{c1::in the cytoplasm}}
Published	09/12/2023	The endomembrane system includes the {{c1::ER}}, {{c2::Golgi}}, and {{c3::lysosomes/vacuoles}}
Published	09/12/2023	Proteins are sent to the {{c1::cis}} face of the Golgi and exit through the {{c1::trans}} face.
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::RER}} or {{c1::start transfer}} signal is due to 20-30 {{c2::hydrophobic amino acids}} at the beginning of the protein
Published	09/12/2023	To end up inside the {{c1::ER lumen}}, {{c2::glycosylation}} on {{c3::asparagine}} occurs
Published	09/12/2023	To end up at the {{c2::lysosomes}}, {{c1::sugars}} are added to proteins
Published	09/12/2023	To enter the {{c3::cell membrane vesicles}}, the terminal {{c1::mannose}} is converted to {{c2::galactose}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::neurons}} are more likely to have more {{c2::RER}}
Published	09/12/2023	Mucus-secreting goblet cells are rich in {{c1::rough ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	Antibody-secreting plasma cells are rich in {{c1::rough ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Tay-Sachs}} disease is a {{c2::lysosomal}} storage disorder
Published	09/12/2023	Prion disease occurs when the prion protein is a {{c1::beta sheath}} rather than a {{c1::alpha helix}}
Published	09/12/2023	Class {{c1::II}} CFTR mutations cause the protein to {{c2::misfold}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c4::a1-antitrypsin}} is produced in the {{c1::liver}} and protects the {{c2::lungs}} from {{c3::neutrophil elastase}}. If damaged, ca…
Published	09/12/2023	Which ion promotes exocytosis of vesicles?{{c1::Calcium}}
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::tetanus}} toxin is a {{c2::protease}} that cleaves receptors used for movement of {{c3::vesicles}} in the {{c4::neurons}…
Published	09/12/2023	The {{c1::botulinum}} toxin is a {{c2::protease}} that cleaves {{c3::synaptic proteins}}. It blocks the release of {{c4::acetylcho…
Published	09/12/2023	Botulinum toxin inhibits release of {{c1::acetylcholine}} by {{c2::exocytosis}}
Published	09/12/2023	The OTC gene is involved in the {{c1::urea}} cycle
Published	09/12/2023	The carbon in urea comes from {{c1::CO2}}
Published	09/12/2023	The two amino groups in urea comes from {{c1::ammonia}} and {{c2::aspartate}}
Published	09/12/2023	The two liver tissue markers are {{c1::ALT}} and {{c2::AST}}
Published	09/12/2023	OTC deficiency is {{c1::X-linked recessive::inheritance}} and leads to increased {{c2::carbamoyl phosphate}}. That is later converted into&n…
Published	09/12/2023	Orotic acidura from OTC deficiency can manifest as {{c1::orange crystals}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c3::Sodium phenylbutyrate}} reduces {{c1::ammonia}} levels by conjugating with {{c2::glutamine}} and being excreted in the urine
Published	09/12/2023	The difference between the GLUT2 and GLUT4 transporter is that the GLUT2 {{c1::doesn't rely on insulin}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c2::GLUT2}} is found in {{c1::liver/pancreatic beta cells}}, while {{c2::GLUT4}} is found in {{c1::muscle/adipose tissue}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c2::Calcium-channel blocker}} overdose leads to {{c1::increased}} blood glucose levels
Published	09/12/2023	{{c2::Sulfonylureas}} affect insulin release by closing {{c1::K+ channels}} in beta cells
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Octreotide}} is a {{c2::somatostatin}} analog which {{c3::decreases}} insulin release by {{c4::blocking}} calcium channels
Published	09/12/2023	Insulin transports K+ {{c1::into}} the cell by activating the {{c2::Na+/K+ pump}}
Published	09/12/2023	{{c1::Insulin}} {{c2::promotes}} glucose uptake, glycogenesis, and glycolysis, and {{c2::inhibits}} glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Published	09/12/2023	Insulin stimulates {{c1::amino acid}} uptake and {{c1::protein}} synthesis in muscles. It inhibits {{c2::proteolysis}}
Published	09/12/2023	Insulin regulates fat by stimulating {{c1::lipogenesis}} and inhibiting {{c1::lipolysis}}
Published	09/12/2023	Enteral administration includes {{c1::oral}}, {{c1::sublingual}}, and {{c1::rectal}}
Published	09/12/2023	Parenteral administration inclues {{c1::subcutaneous}}, {{c1::intramuscular}}, and {{c1::intravenous}}
Published	09/12/2023	Insulin is given {{c1::parenterally}} because it won't survive the {{c2::GI tract}}
Published	09/12/2023	Activation of insulin also triggers its {{c1::degradation}}
Published	09/12/2023	To end up in the {{c2::extrinsic transmembrane proteins}}, {{c1::fatty acids}} are added to the proteins
Published	09/12/2023	To end up in the {{c1::ER}}, a C-terminal {{c2::KDEL}} receptor is added to protein
Published	09/12/2023	To be secreted, carbohydrate side chains on {{c1::serine}} and {{c1::threonine}} are added
Published	09/12/2023	To end up in the {{c1::cell membrane}}, the proteins are embedded into {{c2::transferable membrane parts}}
Published	09/12/2023	Neuronal bodies are rich in {{c1::rough ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	The brain is rich in {{c1::smooth ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	The striated muscle is rich in {{c1::smooth ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	The liver is rich in {{c1::smooth ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	Reproductive organs are rich in {{c1::smooth ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	The adrenal cortex is rich in {{c1::smooth ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	Sebaceous glands are rich in {{c1::smooth ER::rough/smooth ER}}
Published	09/12/2023	When a1-antitrypsin is {{c2::not degraded::degraded/not degraded}}, it leads to {{c1::cirrhosis of liver}}
Published	09/12/2023	When a1-antitrypsin is {{c1::degraded::degraded/not degraded}}, it leads to {{c2::lung disease}}
Published	09/12/2023	Rapid acting insulin:Onset: {{c1::1-15 minutes}}Peak Effect: {{c2::1 hour}}Duration: {{c3::3-4 hours}}Pharmaceutical strategy: most sim…
Published	09/12/2023	Short acting insulin:Onset: {{c1::30 minutes}}Peak Effect: {{c2::2-3 hour}}Duration: {{c3::5-8 hours}}Pharmaceutical strategy: produced…
Published	09/12/2023	Intermediate acting insulin:Onset: {{c1::1-2 hours}}Peak Effect: {{c2::4 hours}}Duration: {{c3::16-24 hours}}Pharmaceutical strategy: a…
Published	09/12/2023	Long acting insulin:Onset: {{c1::1-2 hours}}Peak Effect: {{c2::none}}Duration: {{c3::20-24 hours}}Pharmaceutical strategy: forms {…
Published	09/13/2023	A {{c1::prognostic}} test predicts how {{c2::the disease behaves}}
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Predictive}} testing is a subtype of {{c2::prognostic}} testing that predicts the effective {{c3::therapy}}. This commonly applies to&…
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Sensitivity}} is the likelihood to correctly diagnose an individual {{c2::with::with/without}} a disease as {{c2::positive}}.
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Specificity}} is the likelihood to correctly diagnose an individual {{c2::without::with/without}} a disease as {{c2::negative}}.
Published	09/13/2023	A high {{c1::sensitivity}} results in few false {{c2::negatives}}
Published	09/13/2023	A high {{c1::specificity}} results in few false {{c2::positives}}
Published	09/13/2023	Prevalence is more important for {{c1::PPV::PPV/NPV}}
Published	09/13/2023	The normal reference range is set at values {{c1::2 standard deviations}} of the mean. This covers {{c2::95%}} of the population.
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Therapy guiding}} testing explores if {{c2::changes}} are needed
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Screening tests}} test disease in patients {{c2::without}} symptoms.
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Diagnostic tests}} test disease in patients {{c2::with}} symptoms.
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Prognostic tests}} test how a patient will do in the future
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Therapy guiding tests}} test which therapy to use, the dose, and measures the effectiveness of a treatment
Published	09/18/2023	The sperm penetrates the {{c1::corona radiata}} of the ovary to fertilize the egg
Published	09/14/2023	Sperm releases {{c1::acrosin}} to allow the sperm to enter the egg
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::Cortical granules}} are released to prevent further sperm penetration (this is called the {{c2::zona}} reaction)
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c1::embryoblast}} becomes the {{c2::fetus}} while the {{c1::trophoblast}} becomes the {{c2::placenta}}
Published	09/14/2023	The egg implants in the {{c1::uterine cavity}} at day {{c2::7}}.
Published	09/14/2023	Implanation of the egg elsewhere (such as the {{c2::ampulla}}) is termed {{c1::ectopic pregnancy}}
Published	09/18/2023	{{c1::Syncytiotrophoblast}} cells from {{c2::embryoblast}} penetrate {{c3::decidua basalis}} of the uterus
Published	09/14/2023	At week {{c1::2}}, the embryoblasts form 2 cell types: the {{c2::hypoblast}} and {{c2::epiblast}}
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c3::hypoblast}} is {{c1::ventral::dorsal or ventral}} and lines the {{c2::yolk sac}}
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c3::epiblast}} is {{c1::dorsal::dorsal or ventral}} and lines the {{c2::amniotic cavity}}
Published	09/14/2023	The trophoblast differentiates into the {{c1::cytotrophoblast}} and {{c1::syncytiotrophoblast}}
Published	09/14/2023	The embryoblast differentiates into the {{c1::epiblast}} and {{c1::hypoblast}}
Published	09/14/2023	At week 2, two cavities form: the {{c1::amniotic}} and {{c2::chorionic}} cavity
Published	09/14/2023	The extraembryonic mesoderm splits into the extraembryonic {{c1::somatic/parietal}} and {{c2::splanchnic/visceral}} mesoderm
Published	09/18/2023	{{c1::Gastrulation}} occurs on day {{c2::14}} and leads to the formation of the primitive {{c3::streak}}
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::Invagination}} leads to the formation of the {{c2::trilaminar disc}}
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c1::hypoblast}} is later replaced by the {{c2::endoderm}}
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c1::splanchnic/visceral}} mesoderm is on the {{c2::inside}}, while the {{c1::parietal/somatic}} mesoderm is on the {{c2::out…
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c1::notochord}} later forms the {{c2::nucleus pulposus}} in our bodies
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c1::cranial neuopore}} closes on day {{c2::25}}
Published	09/14/2023	The {{c1::caudal neuropore}} closes on day {{c2::28}}
Published	09/14/2023	Failure of closure of the {{c1::caudal neuropore}} can lead to {{c2::spina bifida}} and {{c3::spina bifida occulta}}
Published	09/18/2023	Failure of closure of the {{c1::cranial neuropore}} can lead to {{c2::encephalocele}} and {{c3::anencephaly}}
Published	09/14/2023	Myelomeningocele is a severe type of {{c1::spina bifida}}
Published	09/14/2023	{{c2::Spina bifida}} results in protrusion of {{c1::spinal contents}}
Published	09/18/2023	The {{c1::Sonic Hedgehog Proteins}} are secreted by the {{c2::notochord}} and forms a {{c3::concentration gradient}} which tells cells …
Published	09/14/2023	At week {{c1::4}}, the {{c2::intermediate mesoderm}} condenses to form the {{c3::urogenital ridge}}. This becomes the {{c4::gonads…
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::Lateral folding}} will lead to formation of the primitive {{c2::heart tube}}
Published	09/14/2023	The liver is formed from the {{c1::foregut::foregut, midgut, hindgut}}
Published	09/14/2023	When the tissues release hormones, they first enter the {{c1::venous::arterial/venous}} system
Published	09/14/2023	When the pancreas releases something, it first goes through the {{c1::liver::liver/heart}}
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::Portal circulation}} starts as {{c2::capillaries}} and ends as {{c2::capillaries}}
Published	09/14/2023	{{c2::Diazoxide}} helps patients by {{c1::opening}} K+ channels and {{c1::decreasing}} insulin release
Published	09/14/2023	{{c2::Sulfonylureas}} helps patients by {{c1::closing}} K+ channels and {{c1::increasing}} insulin release
Published	09/14/2023	{{c3::Diazoxide}}, also known as {{c1::Proglycem}}, is used to treat low blood sugar. This can be caused by {{c2::islet cell tumors}} that c…
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::Potassium}} ions determines the resting membrane potentials
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::C-peptide}} is released with insulin and are used to estimate {{c2::endogenous}} versus {{c2::injected}} insulin
Published	09/14/2023	Half-life of insulin is {{c1::6 minutes}}, while the half-life of C peptide is {{c2::15 minutes}}
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::Precision medicine}} is an approach that takes into account {{c2::individual differences}} in patients
Published	09/14/2023	Some aspects of precision medicine can include:{{c1::Family history}}{{c2::Cellular markers of disease}}{{c3::Pharmacogenomics}}
Status	Last Update	Fields