Notes in Week 5

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Published	09/19/2024	All epithelium has a {{c1::basal lamina}} separating it from {{c2::underlying connective tissue}}
Published	09/19/2024	The {{c1::lateral}} surface of epithelium is {{c2::the surface between neighboring cells}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Tight junctions}} are also called {{c2::zonula occludens}} and are analogous to {{c3::stitching}}. They are used to {{c3::control movement throu…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Anchoring junctions}} are also called {{c2::zonula adherens}} and are analogous to {{c3::a zipper}}. They are created by {{c3::cadherin between …
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Desmosomes}} are also called {{c2::macula adherens}} and are analogous to {{c3::buttons that snap together}}. They are created by {{c3::cadherin…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Gap junctions}} are {{c2::small (ion) channels that go directly from one cell to another}}. They are formed from {{c2::aligned pairs of connexon…
Published	09/19/2024	The basement membrane has 3 layers:{{c1::Lamina lucida: {{c2::epidermal side, electron lucent, LAMININ protein}}}}{{c1::Lamina densa: {{c2::middle, el…
Published	09/19/2024	Microvilli are used to {{c1::increase surface area for absorption}}. Their general structure:Foundation of {{c2::F-actin & myosin II::2}}Core of {…
Published	09/19/2024	Cilia consist of {{c1::a core of 9 pairs of microtubules "{{c2::axoneme}}"}} linked with {{c1::nexins & dyein}} and are continuous with {{c1:…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0125:top=.1091:width=.1701:height=.0658:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0115:top=.3165:width=.1584:height=.062…
Published	09/19/2024	There are 4 types of epithelium:{{c2::Simple - {{c1::one layer}}}}{{c2::Stratified - {{c1::multiple layers}}}}{{c2::Pseudostratified - {{c1::single la…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Fibroblasts}} are spindle shaped cells that {{c2::work to produce & maintain the extracellular matrix}}
Published	09/19/2024	The extracellular matrix has 2 main components:{{c1::Ground substance: {{c2::glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)}}}}{{c1::Fibrillar proteins: {{c2::anchors &amp…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Collagen III}} forms {{c2::reticular fibers}} to {{c3::provide supportive meshwork}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Collagen IV}} forms a {{c2::sheet-like structure}} to {{c3::support basement membranes}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c2::White}} adipose tissue is composed of {{c1::large singular lipid droplets}} and are used to {{c1::store energy & insulate the body}}.
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Brown}} adipose tissue is composed of {{c2::small lipid droplets with many mitochondria}} and is used to {{c2::generate heat outside of shiverin…
Published	09/19/2024	Excess {{c2::visceral fat}} is correlated with disease states like {{c1::metabolic disorders, cancer, Alzheimers, heart disease, & stroke}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Loose (areolar)}} connective tissue Cellular components: {{c2::fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages::3}}Extracellular matrix: {{c2::fi…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Dense regular}} connective tissue Cellular components: {{c2::parallel collagen I, fibroblasts::2}}Extracellular matrix: {{c2::ver…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Dense irregular}} connective tissue Cellular components: {{c2::dense collagen I & III packed randomly, fibroblasts::2}}Extracellul…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Reticular}} connective tissue Cellular components: {{c2::reticular cells, WBCs::2}}Extracellular matrix: {{c2::scaffolding of col…
Published	09/19/2024	The {{c1::outer}} mitochondrial membrane is semi-permeable because {{c2::it has transporters in it}}. The {{c1::inner}} membrane is impermeable becaus…
Published	09/19/2024	ETC {{c1::complex I, III, & IV::protein names}} {{c2::pump protons into the intermembrane space::function}} to {{c3::create a gradient for ATP syn…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Coenzyme Q}} shuttles electrons {{c2::from complex I to complex III}} & {{c2::from complex II to complex III}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Cytochrome C}} shuttles electrons {{c2::from complex III to complex IV}}
Published	09/19/2024	Inhibitors of the ETC{{c1::Complex I}}: {{c2::Rotenone, amytal, piericidin A}}
Published	09/19/2024	Inhibitors of the ETC{{c1::Complex III}}: {{c2::Antimycin A}}
Published	09/19/2024	Inhibitors of the ETC{{c1::Complex IV}}: {{c2::Cyanide, carbon monoxide, sodium azide, hydrogen sulfide}}
Published	09/19/2024	Inhibitors of the ETC{{c1::ATP Synthase}}: {{c2::Oligomycin}}
Published	09/19/2024	Inhibitors of the ETC{{c1::DNP (dinitrophenol) & UCP1::Uncoupler molecules}}: {{c2::dissapates the proton gradient, but electron transport continu…
Published	09/19/2024	Diseases affecting oxidative phosphorylation are generally caused by {{c1::a mutation in mitochondrial DNA}} and inherited {{c1::from the mother}}.Sym…
Published	09/19/2024	To palpate rib angles {{c1::start medial and slowly move more laterally}}Symptoms of somatic dysfunction: {{c2::tenderness, asymmetry, tissue texture …
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin {{c1::B6}} is also called {{c2::Pyridoxine}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin {{c1::B9}} is also called {{c2::Folate}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin {{c1::B12}} is also called {{c2::Cobalamin}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin {{c1::B7}} is also called {{c2::Biotin}}
Published	09/19/2024	Amino acids that form oxaloacetate (OAA) are {{c1::asparagine & aspartate}}. Because OAA enters {{c2::gluconeogenesis}} they are glucogenic AA
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Proline, arginine, histidine, & glutamine}} form {{c2::glutamate}}, which is converted into {{c2::α-Ketoglutarate}}{{c2::α-Ketoglutarat…
Published	09/19/2024	Pyruvate is formed from {{c1::alanine, serine, glycine, tryptophan, cysteine, & threonine::amino acids}}. It enters {{c2::gluconeogenesis}} m…
Published	09/19/2024	Phenylalanine & tyrosine form {{c1::fumarate}} ({{c2::gluco}}genic) & {{c1::acetoacetate}} ({{c2::keto}}genic)
Published	09/19/2024	{{c2::Phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, leucine, & lysine}} can be converted to acetoacetate/acetyl CoA making them {{c1::keto}}genic
Published	09/19/2024	Pyruvate can be converted to {{c1::alanine}} which is used in {{c2::transamination reactions}}
Published	09/19/2024	α-Ketoglutarate forms {{c1::glutamate}} by {{c2::receiving amino groups from transaminated AA}}
Published	09/19/2024	Transaminases {{c1::transfer an amino group from an amino acid to an α-keto acid to create a new amino acid and a new α-keto acid::function}}. Use {{c…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::ALT (Alanine transaminase)::Enzyme}} Reaction: {{c2::Alanine + α-ketoglutarate → Pyruvate + Glutamate}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::AST (Aspartate transaminase)}}Reaction: {{c2::Aspartate + α-ketoglutarate → Oxaloacetate + Glutamate}}
Published	09/19/2024	Glutamate dehydrogenase is a {{c1::deaminase}}Reaction: {{c2::Glutamate + NAD(P)+ → α-Ketoglutarate + NH3 + NAD(P)H}}
Published	09/19/2024	Nitrogen is transported from skeletal muscle to the liver as {{c1::alanine through the alanine cycle}}. Then converted to {{c2::pyruvate & ammonia…
Published	09/19/2024	Peripheral tissues transport nitrogen to the liver as {{c2::glutamine}}, then it is converted to {{c1::glutamate & ammonia}}
Published	09/19/2024	In the urea cycle one nitrogen comes from {{c1::ammonia}} (through {{c2::deamination}}) and the other comes from {{c1::aspartate}} (through {{c2::tran…
Published	09/19/2024	In the first step of the urea cycle {{c1::CPSI::enzyme}} converts {{c1::ammonia & bicarbonate}} into {{c1::carbamoyl phosphate}} in the {{c2::mito…
Published	09/19/2024	Urea cycle disorders generally present as {{c1::hyperammoneia}} with symptoms of {{c1::lethargy, tremors, anorexia, & seizures}}. It can be treate…
Published	09/19/2024	In a normal distribution:{{c1::68}}% of data is within 1 standard deviation of the mean.{{c1::95}}% is within 2 standard deviations.{{c1::99.7}}% is w…
Published	09/19/2024	Cell membrane potential is {{c1::the electrical potential created across the membrane by a difference in concentration of ions}}
Published	09/19/2024	Most cells have a {{c1::negative}} resting membrane potential, but it can vary based on {{c2::cell type/location}}
Published	09/19/2024	The main contributor to membrane potential is the {{c1::Na/K ATPase Pump}}
Published	09/19/2024	Veq(compound) is {{c1::a hypothetical value where a membrane is in electrical equalibrium}}
Published	09/19/2024	At Veq(compound) the net flux of the ions across the membrane would be {{c1::0}}
Published	09/19/2024	You can predict the direction of ion flow by {{c1::comparing the membrane potential of the cell to the equilibrium potential of each ion}} with the eq…
Published	09/19/2024	The Goldman Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) equation is used to {{c1::calculate membrane potential (Vm with multiple ions contributing)}}. It's dependent on {{c2::…
Published	09/19/2024	For a standard cell the permeability of K, Cl, & Na are {{c1::K > Cl > Na > 0 }}
Published	09/19/2024	There are 2 main mechanisms to maintain membrane resting potential:{{c1::Potassium leak channels: {{c2::allows K to move passively down its concentrat…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::K::ion 1}} has a larger effect on membrane potential than {{c1::Na::ion 2}} because {{c1::K::ion 1}} {{c2::membrane permeability is higher, so s…
Published	09/19/2024	Vm is {{c1::a real, measurable value}} whereas Veq is {{c1::a theoretical estimate of where equilibrium is}}
Published	09/19/2024	Because [K] is relatively small in the ECF, small changes lead to {{c1::large effects on Veq}}
Published	09/19/2024	Hypernatremia: {{c1::high [Na]}}Value {{c1::> 145 mM}}
Published	09/19/2024	Hyperkalemia: {{c1::high [K]}}Value {{c1::> 5 mM}}
Published	09/19/2024	Hypokalemia: {{c1::low [K]}}Value {{c1::< 3.5 mM}}
Published	09/19/2024	Hyponatremia: {{c1::low [Na]}}Value {{c1::< 135 mM}}
Published	09/19/2024	In relation to a cell, capacitance is {{c1::the ability of the membrane to store opposite charges on opposite sides}}. This creates {{c1::an electric …
Published	09/19/2024	In relation to a cell, resistance is {{c1::the ability of the membrane resist a flow of ions}}. This {{c1::makes the membrane selectively permeab…
Published	09/19/2024	In relation to a cell, conductance is {{c1::the amount of channels open for a specific ion}}. This {{c1::determines how easy it is for ions (&amp…
Published	09/19/2024	In relation to a cell, permeability is {{c1::how easy it is to cross the cell membrane}}. This is affected by {{c1::what kinds of transporters/ch…
Published	09/19/2024	Biotin (Vitamin B7)Function: {{c1::coenzyme for carboxylation reactions like FAS & gluconeogenesis}}
Published	09/19/2024	Folic AcidFunction: {{c1::DNA/RNA synthesis, metabolism of homocysteine to methionine::2}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin CFunction: {{c1::Antioxidant (reduces ROS), collagen synthesis, iron absorption::3}}Deficiency: {{c2::Scurvy; swollen, sore gums, po…
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin KFunction: {{c1::Cofactor for γ-carboxylation of clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X) & prothrombin (activates clotting cascade)}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin AFunction: {{c1::Retinal (visual pigment), epithelium differentiation, reproduction/fertility, growth of bones/teeth::4}}Deficiency:&nbsp…
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin DFunction: {{c1::Maintain adequate plasma Ca levels through intestinal absorption, kidney reabsorption, & bone resorption::3}}Deficie…
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)Function: {{c1::Cofactor for transamination (& other AA metabolism) (PLP), glycogen phosphorylase, heme synthesis…
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)Function: {{c1::Cofactor for breakdown of odd number FA & methionine synthesis}}Deficiency: {{c2::Neurological sy…
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)Function: {{c1::Cofactor for enzymes (TPP) in carb metabolism like PDH, alpha-keto DH, transketolase}}Deficiency: {{c2:…
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)Function: {{c1::FAD/FMN coenzyme in redox reactions}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin B3 (Niacin)Function: {{c1::NAD+/NADP+ coenzyme in redox reactions, repair skin UV damage, treat hyperlipidemia::3}}Deficiency: {{c2:…
Published	09/19/2024	Water soluble vitamins: {{c1::Vitamin C, B-complex vitamins}} They {{c2::cannot be stored & need constant intake}}
Published	09/19/2024	Fat soluble vitamins: {{c1::Vitamin A, D, E, K}}They {{c2::can be stored in fat & too much can be toxic}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin A toxicity can lead to {{c1::dermatitis, dry skin, enlarged liver, long bone thinning, hair loss, increased ICP::6 symptoms}}
Published	09/19/2024	Vitamin D toxicity is VERY dangerous, causing {{c1::nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness, thirst, hypercalcemia, & Ca depositing on organs::6 symptom…
Published	09/19/2024	EAR = {{c1::estimated average requirement of intake}}. Adequate intake for {{c1::50}}% of individuals of a specific age/gender
Published	09/19/2024	RDA = {{c1::recommended dietary allowance}}. Adequate intake for {{c1::97}}% of individuals of a specific age/gender
Published	09/19/2024	Macrominerals include {{c1::Ca, K, Mg, Na, K, Cl}}. They are required in {{c1::large}} amounts
Published	09/19/2024	Microminerals include {{c1::Fe, Zn, Fl, Cr, Cu, I, Mn, Se}}. They are required in {{c1::small}} amounts
Published	09/19/2024	IodineFunction: {{c1::synthesis of T3 & T4}}Deficiency: {{c2:: hypothyriodism, goiter (enlarged thyroid), cretinism (stunted physical &a…
Published	09/19/2024	IronFunction: {{c1::transport of oxygen, component of iron containing enzymes (cytochrome P450, iron sulfur centers, catalase)}}Deficiency: …
Published	09/19/2024	ZincFunction: {{c1::Cofactor for enzymes (DNA & protein synthesis, wound healing, immune function)}}
Published	09/19/2024	CopperFunction: {{c1::Cofactor for enzymes (iron metabolism, melanin production, & collagen synthesis)}}
Published	09/19/2024	Free iron (Fe+3) is dangerous, so {{c1::vitamin C reduces it for transportation}}.
Published	09/19/2024	Iron is transported in the blood as {{c1::transferrin}} and stored in {{c2::bone marrow, liver, or muscle tissues}} as {{c1::ferritin}} or {{c1::hemos…
Published	09/19/2024	Iron storage{{c1::Bone marrow::Tissue}} to facilitate {{c2::hemoglobin synthesis}}{{c1::Liver::Tissue}} for {{c2::enzyme synthesis}}{{c1::Muscle::Tiss…
Published	09/19/2024	Lipid Classifications{{c1::Triacylglycerols (TAGs)}}: {{c2::glycerol backbone & 3 fatty acid chains::structure}}Characteristics: {{c2::hydrop…
Published	09/19/2024	Lipid Classifications{{c1::Glycerophospholipid}}: {{c2::glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid chains, phosphate "head"::structure}}Characteristics: {{c…
Published	09/19/2024	Lipid Classifications{{c1::Free fatty acid (FFA)}}: {{c2::carboxyl head group & hydrocarbon chain::structure}}Saturated have all single bonds, uns…
Published	09/19/2024	Lipid Classifications{{c1::Cholesterol}}: {{c2::4 ring steroid structure with hydrocarbon side chain::structure}}Function: {{c2::structural compo…
Published	09/19/2024	Lipid Classifications{{c1::Cholesterol ester}}: {{c2::4 ring steroid structure with esterified hydrocarbon side chain::structure}}Function: {{c2:…
Published	09/19/2024	Role in FFA absorption:{{c1::Stomach}}:{{c2::Gastric lipase breaks down TAGs}}
Published	09/19/2024	Role in FFA absorption:{{c1::Gallbladder}}:{{c2::release bile salts to emulsify fats}}
Published	09/19/2024	Role in FFA absorption:{{c1::Pancreas}}:{{c2::Pancreatic lipase & colipase degrade emulsified fats into FFA, monoglycerides}}
Published	09/19/2024	Role in FFA absorption:{{c1::Sm Intestine}}:{{c2::Main site of absorption through micelles}}
Published	09/19/2024	Role in FFA absorption:{{c1::Adipose}}:{{c2::Stores TAGs for energy use}}
Published	09/19/2024	Role in FFA absorption:{{c1::Liver}}:{{c2::Converts lipids into lipoproteins & distributes to tissues}}
Published	09/19/2024	Bile salts help digest fats by {{c1::breaking large droplets into smaller micelles, allowing enzymes more surface area}} and {{c1::making them ea…
Published	09/19/2024	Pancreatic lipase {{c1::breaks down TAGs into monoglycerides & FFA::function}}.
Published	09/19/2024	Cholesteryl esterase {{c1::breaks down cholesterol esters into FFA & cholesterol::function}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Lingual lipase}} begins TAG digestion in the mouth, {{c1::gastric lipase}} continues in the stomach
Published	09/19/2024	Cholestocystokinin (CCK) {{c1::decreases gastric motility, stimulates release of gallbladder bile & pancreatic enzymes::function}}
Published	09/19/2024	Secretin causes {{c1::the liver and pancreas to secrete bicarbonate into the intestine}}
Published	09/19/2024	In the small intestine, {{c2::FFA & monoglycerides}} are {{c1::synthesized into TAG}}. {{c2::FFA & cholesterol}} are {{c1::synthesized into ch…
Published	09/19/2024	In the small intestine, TAGs, CE, & PL are {{c1::packaged into chylomicrons and enter the lymphatic system}}
Published	09/19/2024	During resynthesis of TAG & CE, {{c1::FFAs are activated by fatty acyl CoA synthetase}}{{c1::Acyl CoA is formed & condensed with 2-monoacylgly…
Published	09/19/2024	Dietary lipid molecules are packaged with {{c1::apolipoprotein B48}} to form {{c1::chylomicrons}}
Published	09/19/2024	Apo{{c2::B48}} is found in {{c1::chylomicrons & chylomicron remnants}}Apo{{c2::B100}} is found in {{c1::VLDL, IDL, & LDL}}Apo {{c2::A-I}}…
Published	09/19/2024	The more TAGs present in a lipoprotein, the {{c1::less dense it is}}
Published	09/19/2024	Autonomy: {{c1::Respect the patient’s right to make decisions about their own care}}
Published	09/19/2024	Beneficence: {{c1::Act in the best interest of the patient by promoting their health and well-being}}
Published	09/19/2024	Non-Maleficence: {{c1::Avoid causing harm to patients ("First, do no harm")}}
Published	09/19/2024	Justice: {{c1::Ensure fairness in the distribution of healthcare resources and treatment, providing equitable care to all patients}}
Published	09/19/2024	Utilitarianism: {{c1::An ethical philosiphy that focuses on actions that provide the greatest good for the greatest number}}
Published	09/19/2024	Kantian Ethics: {{c1::An ethical philosiphy that emphasizes duty and principles, where certain actions are inherently right or wrong regardless of the…
Published	09/19/2024	Virtue Ethics: {{c1::An ethical philosiphy that focuses on the character of the healthcare provider, encouraging traits like honesty, compassion, and …
Published	09/19/2024	Paternalism: {{c1::Intervening on a patient's autonomous decisions when they will inflict harm on themselves or others}}
Published	09/19/2024	In medicine fidelity is {{c1::the concept of keeping promises and being loyal to your patients}}
Published	09/19/2024	In medicine veracity is {{c1::the tendency to be honest & tell the truth}}
Published	09/19/2024	The role of chylomicrons is {{c1::to deliver TAGs to the liver ({{c2::for glycerol::why}}), muscles ({{c2::to be oxidized::why}}), & adipose ({{c2…
Published	09/19/2024	TAGs are taken from chylomicrons when {{c1::lipoprotein lipase (LPL) hydrolyzes & frees FA for tissue uptake}}
Published	09/19/2024	After lipoprotein lipase (LPL) acts on a chylomicron, it {{c1::leaves chylomicron remnants which are low in TAG, high in cholesterol & return to t…
Published	09/19/2024	The citrate shuttle moves {{c1::acetyl CoA}} from {{c2::the mitochondria}} to the {{c2::cytosol}} for {{c2::fatty acid synthesis}}
Published	09/19/2024	The carnitine shuttle moves {{c1::long chain FA}} from {{c2::the cytosol}} to the {{c2::mitochondria}} for {{c2::beta oxidation}}
Published	09/19/2024	Fatty acid synthesis{{c1::Acetyl CoA is moved into the cytosol using the citrate shuttle}}{{c1::Acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts cytosolic acetyl…
Published	09/19/2024	ACC (acetyl CoA carboxylase) is inactivated by {{c1::phosphorylation}} and activated by {{c1::AMP dependent protein kinase (AMPK) with high AMP}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Insulin}} stimulates fatty acid synthesis by {{c2::activating ACC & FAS}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::Glucagon & epinephrine}} inhibit fatty acid synthesis by {{c2::activating phosphorylation of ACC}}
Published	09/19/2024	Glycerol 3P is primarily generated from {{c1::dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)}} via glycolysis.
Published	09/19/2024	The liver uses glycerol directly by {{c1::glycerol kinase phosphorylating glycerol into glycerol 3P}}
Published	09/19/2024	Adipose tissue {{c1::relies soley on DHAP to form glycerol 3P::uses glycerol by}}
Published	09/19/2024	TAG synthesis steps:{{c1::Glycerol 3P & acyl CoA are combined using GPAT enzyme}}{{c1::PAP dephosphorylates the molecule to form DAG}}{{c1::DGAT a…
Published	09/19/2024	The liver can produce TAGs from many substrates including {{c1::glycerol from periphreal tissue, dietary carbs & proteins}}. Synthesis is promoted…
Published	09/19/2024	Adipose tissue produces TAGs from {{c1::glucose derived DHAP}}. Insulin stimulates this process, but adipose tissue primarily creates TAGs to {{c1::be…
Published	09/19/2024	The liver synthesizes TAGs and then {{c1::packages them into VLDL particles to move into the bloodstream to other tissue}}
Published	09/19/2024	Adipose cells synthesize TAGs and then {{c1::store them in lipid droplets for energy reserves}}
Published	09/19/2024	VLDL is composed of {{c1::mostly TAGS with cholesterol, phospholipids, & apo B100}}. Its purpose is to {{c1::deliver TAGs to periphreal tissues an…
Published	09/19/2024	In a fasted state, {{c1::hormone sensitive lipase (HSL)}} is activated by glucagon & epinephrine. It works to {{c2::hydrolyze stored TAGs}}. Insul…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c2::Carnitine}} transports {{c1::long chain fatty acids}} into the mitochondria where they are {{c1::broken down by β-oxidation}}.
Published	09/19/2024	Beta oxidation stepsCarnitine shuttle:{{c1::Acyl CoA synthetase activates fatty acids in the cytoplasm }}{{c1::Fatty acids (activated by CoA) are…
Published	09/19/2024	Ketogenesis occurs in the liver during prolonged fasting & low carb intake. {{c1::Beta oxidation is increased (only energy source) leading to exce…
Published	09/19/2024	Modern pathology helps to understand {{c1::how cellular & molecular abnormalities cause disease}}. It helps provide {{c1::accurate dx, prognosis, …
Published	09/19/2024	Etiology is the {{c1::actual cause of a disease}}
Published	09/19/2024	Pathogenesis is {{c1::the mechanism by which a disease develops}}, importanly {{c1::understanding how etiology affects presentation}}
Published	09/19/2024	General pathology focuses on {{c1::basic mechanisms of disease that are present in all organs/tissues}}. Examples: {{c1::Inflammation, cell injury/dea…
Published	09/19/2024	Neoplasia is {{c1::the process of abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth}}
Published	09/19/2024	Hemodynamic disorders are {{c1::conditions that affect blood flow or regulation of blood volume}}
Published	09/19/2024	Edema: {{c1::Abnormal accumulation of fluid in tissues, leading to swelling}}
Published	09/19/2024	Thrombosis: {{c1:: Formation of a blood clot (thrombus) within a blood vessel, obstructing blood flow}}
Published	09/19/2024	Embolism: {{c1::Occurs when an abnormal mass (e.g., blood clot, fat, air) travels through the bloodstream and lodges in a blood vessel, obstructing bl…
Published	09/19/2024	Shock: {{c1::A state of systemic hypoperfusion (not enough blood flow) due to reduced cardiac output or blood volume, resulting in inadequate oxygen d…
Published	09/19/2024	Systemic pathology focuses on {{c1::The unique diseases or conditions of each organ system, how general pathological mechanisms manifest in it, & …
Published	09/19/2024	3 types of specimen biopsies{{c2::Excisional: {{c1::taking the mass out }}}}{{c2::Incisional: {{c1::take a small piece of the mass out}}}}{{c2::N…
Published	09/19/2024	The main role of a clinical pathologist is to {{c1::specialize in identifying disease}} through {{c1::molecular analysis, histology, & cytology}}.
Published	09/19/2024	An "X" shaped chromosome indicates a {{c1::cell ready for division}} because {{c1::it has 2 copies of the same chromatid}}
Published	09/19/2024	There are 3 checkpoints in the cell cycle:{{c1::G1: {{c2::make sure that the cell has appropriate resources to divide}}}}{{c1::G2: {{c2::make sure DNA…
Published	09/19/2024	Genetic crossover/recombination happens {{c1::during prophase of meiosis I}}
Published	09/19/2024	In males meiosis {{c1::occurs continuously after puberty and results in 4 equal sized gametes (sperm)}}. In females {{c1::only 1 viable gamete (ovum) …
Published	09/19/2024	In females, meiosis {{c1::stops at metaphase II in ovulation, if a sperm penetrates the ovum it then will proceed through the 2nd meitotic division}}.…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c3::image-occlusion:rect:left=.4812:top=.5964:width=.2015:height=.0784:oi=1}}{{c5::image-occlusion:rect:left=.6307:top=.2609:width=.0743:height=.038…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.7545:top=.4616:width=.1912:height=.082:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.751:top=.655:width=.2491:height=.1302:o…
Published	09/19/2024	At ovulation the ovum {{c1::ruptures the ovarian membrane and is expelled with its follicular fluid & the fimbrae of the uterine tube sweep the ov…
Published	09/19/2024	An ovum moves through the uterine tube with the help of {{c1::cilia}}. It will stop for multiple days at {{c1::the ampulla}} and {{c1::wait to be fert…
Published	09/19/2024	Steps for ovum fertilization (which occurs in {{c1::the ampulla of the uterine tube}}):{{c2::Acrosomal enzymes of the sperm slowly "eat away" at the c…
Published	09/19/2024	A polar body is {{c1::the second, non-viable cell created in female meiotic division}}
Published	09/19/2024	Under a microscope, 1 polar body indicates {{c1::ovulation}} & 2 polar bodies indicate {{c1::fertilization}}
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.6384:top=.1721:width=.1437:height=.0627:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0818:top=.2396:width=.1483:height=.057…
Published	09/19/2024	During fertilization the {{c1::sperm's head & tail}} enter the cytoplasm, but the {{c1::mitochondria}} does not
Published	09/19/2024	After fertilization of the oocyte the next steps to zygote formation are:{{c1::The male pronucleus grows }}{{c1::Both pronuclei will replicate th…
Published	09/19/2024	Early pregnancy factor (EPF) appears 24-48 hours after fertilization to {{c1::suppress the maternal immune system}}.
Published	09/19/2024	Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced {{c1::after implantation (10-12 days after fertilization)}} and is used to test for pregnancy
Published	09/19/2024	Cells ("{{c2::blastomeres}}") begin dividing 30 hr after fertilization. At the 8 cell stage they undergo {{c1::compaction}} and begin to align with th…
Published	09/19/2024	At the 16 cell stage, about {{c1::3 days::time}} after fertilization, a zygote is called a {{c2::morula}}
Published	09/19/2024	After compaction, cells begin to form 2 distinct masses, {{c1::embryoblast (inner) & trophoblast (outer)}}. Now the morula is referred to as a&nbs…
Published	09/19/2024	The embryoblast ({{c1::larger inner mass::description}}) will go on to form {{c2::the embryo}}, the trophoblast ({{c1::smaller border mass::descriptio…
Published	09/19/2024	After the blastocyst has floated in the uterine cavity for ~2 days {{c1::the zona pellucida disappears and the blastocyst "hatches" to implant in the …
Published	09/19/2024	6 days after fertilization The blastocyst {{c1::proliferates into the endometrium.}} The trophoblast {{c1::differentiates into {{c2::cytotrophoblast}}…
Published	09/19/2024	8 days after fertilization the bilaminar embryonic disc differentiates into the {{c1::hypoblast (facing out) & epiblast (under hypoblast)}}
Published	09/19/2024	Day 9-13  Syncitiotrophoblast burrows {{c1::to connect to maternal capillaries (beginning of uteroplacental circulation), produces hCG}}Memb…
Published	09/19/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0288:top=.088:width=.2525:height=.074:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0219:top=.23:width=.1833:height=.11:oi=1…
Published	09/19/2024	Before implantation the zona pellucida {{c1::prevents the zygote from implanting in the fallopian tubes::function}}
Published	09/19/2024	15 days after fertilizationA groove ({{c1::primitive streak}}) forms on the surface of the epiblast, marking {{c1::the beginning of cell migration}}Th…
Published	09/19/2024	The primitive streak establishes {{c1::an anterior-posterior body axis}}, {{c1::the neural plate}}, and {{c1::the notochord}}
Published	09/19/2024	The {{c2::cytotrophoblast}} is the {{c1::inner}} trophoblast layer that {{c1::consists of distinct cells that contribute to trophoblast growth}}
Published	09/19/2024	The {{c2::syncytiotrophoblast}} is the {{c1::outer}} trophoblast layer that {{c1::is a large mass of cells that play a large role in invading the uter…
Published	09/19/2024	Gastrulation forms 3 layers:{{c1::Ectoderm}}: Forms the nervous system, skin, and sensory organs.{{c1::Mesoderm}}: Forms muscles, bones, the circulato…
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