Notes in PHYSIO EXAM I

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Published	01/21/2025	What are the four most common atoms in biological systems?
Published	01/21/2025	What does an atom's "behavior" depend on?
Published	01/21/2025	How do atoms interact with each other?
Published	01/21/2025	What is a molecule?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the strength of covalent bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	How do covalent bonds form?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the two types of covalent bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	What are nonpolar covalent bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	What are polar covalent bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	What is electronegativity?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the most electronegative atom in living organisms?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the least electronegative atom in living organisms?
Published	01/21/2025	What do delta (𝛅) symbols mean? What does 𝛅- mean? What does 𝛅+ mean?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the strength of ionic bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	How do ionic bonds form?
Published	01/21/2025	Do ionic bonds dissolve in water?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the strength of hydrogen bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	In hydrogen bonds, what are the interactions between?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the most common solvent in biological systems?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the types of solubility of biomolecules?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the characteristics of hydrophilic biomolecules?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the characteristics of hydrophobic biomolecules?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the characteristics of amphipathic biomolecules?
Published	01/21/2025	What does pH measure? What is the equation for pH?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the relationship between pH and [H+]?
Published	01/21/2025	What is an acid?
Published	01/21/2025	What is a base?
Published	01/21/2025	How does a solution of pH 5 compare to a solution with pH 7?
Published	01/21/2025	How do you keep pH stable in biological systems?
Published	01/21/2025	What two parts does a buffer system contain?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the two most common buffer systems in biology?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the bicarbonate buffer system?
Published	02/04/2025	What happens when you add acid to a bicarbonate buffer system? When you add base?
Published	01/21/2025	How does a buffer system work to keep pH stable if you add the base CH3NH2 to a solution?
Published	01/21/2025	What do biological molecules do in water?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the types of special water reactions?
Published	01/21/2025	What is dehydration synthesis?
Published	01/21/2025	What is hydrolysis?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the four classes of biomolecules?
Published	01/21/2025	What are carbohydrates made of? What is the main function?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the types of carbohydrates?
Published	01/21/2025	What are examples of monosaccharides? What is the base formula?
Published	01/21/2025	What are examples of disaccharides? What is the formula for maltose?
Published	01/21/2025	What are examples of polysacharrides?
Published	01/21/2025	What is a lipid?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the three types of lipids?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the structure of triglycerides? What is the function?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the structure of phospholipids? What are phospholipids used to make?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the structure of steroids? What are steroids used to make?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the monomers of nucleic acids? What is the structure? What is the function?
Published	01/21/2025	What are other molecules made from nucleotides?
Published	01/21/2025	What are proteins made of/What are their monomers?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the functions of proteins?
Published	01/21/2025	What is protein synthesis? Where and how are proteins made?
Published	01/21/2025	Draw the structure of an amino acid.
Published	01/21/2025	How are amino acids linked together?
Published	01/21/2025	How many different types of amino acids do we have?
Published	01/21/2025	How are amino acids classified?
Published	01/21/2025	Polar or nonpolar?
Published	01/21/2025	Polar or nonpolar?
Published	01/21/2025	Polar or nonpolar?
Published	01/21/2025	Polar or nonpolar?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the primary structure of proteins? What are the bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the secondary structure of proteins? What are the bonds?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the tertiary structure of proteins?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the quarternary structure of proteins?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the bonds involved in tertiary and quarternary structure of proteins?
Published	01/21/2025	92c6a6e4bdfe4edc9c9c2df5e9cc599c-ao-1
Published	01/21/2025	92c6a6e4bdfe4edc9c9c2df5e9cc599c-ao-2
Published	01/21/2025	92c6a6e4bdfe4edc9c9c2df5e9cc599c-ao-3
Published	01/21/2025	92c6a6e4bdfe4edc9c9c2df5e9cc599c-ao-4
Published	01/21/2025	92c6a6e4bdfe4edc9c9c2df5e9cc599c-ao-5
Published	01/21/2025	What do the activity and ability to interact with other proteins, molecules, and ions of proteins depend on?
Published	01/21/2025	What happens to a protein at extreme temp or pH?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the bonds & structures affected by extreme temp or pH? What does it lead to?
Published	01/21/2025	How are covalent bonds made/broken?
Published	01/21/2025	What does keratin have that makes it strong?
Published	01/21/2025	How does the amino group ionize in water?
Published	01/21/2025	How does the carboxyl group ionize in water?
Published	01/21/2025	What chemical process are your cells using when digesting a recent meal?
Published	01/21/2025	What is a ligand?
Published	01/21/2025	What kinds of bonds/interactions are involved in ligand and protein bonding? Are these bonds reversible?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the binding site of proteins?
Published	01/21/2025	How does the binding of a ligand affect the protein?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the properties of binding sites?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the property of specifity of binding sites?
Published	01/21/2025	Why is specificity of binding sites important in pharmacology?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the property of affinity of binding sites?
Published	01/21/2025	For a protein with high affinity, you need {{c1::less}} ligand than for a protein with low affinity
Published	01/21/2025	Why is affinity of binding sites important in pharmacology?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the difference between affinity and specificity?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the property of saturation of binding sites?
Published	01/21/2025	What is competition between binding sites?
Published	01/21/2025	What factors determine which ligands bind to proteins in a cell?
Published	01/21/2025	What are chemical reactions?
Published	01/21/2025	What is metabolism?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the two types of metabolism?
Published	01/21/2025	What is catabolism?
Published	01/21/2025	What is anabolism?
Published	01/21/2025	What are determinate factors of chemical reaction rates?
Published	01/21/2025	What is an enzyme?
Published	01/21/2025	How do enzymes work?
Published	01/21/2025	How do enzymes help anabolism?
Published	01/21/2025	How do enzymes help catabolism?
Published	01/21/2025	Are enzymes altered during chemical reactions?
Published	01/21/2025	How many enzymes are in a typical cell?
Published	01/21/2025	What are many human diseases caused by?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the three major factors that regulate enzyme-mediated reactions?
Published	01/21/2025	What is enzyme saturation?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the two ways you can control protein activity?
Published	01/21/2025	How can you regulate the amount of enzyme protein in the cell?
Published	01/21/2025	How can you change the conformation of an existing enzyme (enzyme activity)?
Published	01/21/2025	Why do we need to control enzyme activity?
Published	01/21/2025	What is allosteric modification?
Published	01/21/2025	What is an agonist?
Published	01/21/2025	What is an antagonist?
Published	01/21/2025	What is a competitive inhibitor?
Published	01/21/2025	What is a non-competitive inhibitor?
Published	01/21/2025	What inhibitor is needed to use in higher concentration to effectively inhibit an enzyme?
Published	01/21/2025	What is covalent modifcation?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the most common type of covalent modification?
Published	01/21/2025	What is phosphorylation? What two enzymes does it require?
Published	01/21/2025	Why are cofactors and coenzymes important?
Published	01/21/2025	What are cofactors and what do they do?
Published	01/21/2025	What are coenzymes?
Published	01/21/2025	Study this:
Published	01/21/2025	What is a metabolic pathway?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the benefits of having multiple steps of a reaction instead of just one
Published	01/21/2025	Why do we need energy?
Published	01/21/2025	Energy must be:
Published	01/21/2025	What is the main source of energy for biochemical reactions in cells?
Published	01/21/2025	What is ATP?
Published	01/21/2025	What is ATP used for in the cell?
Published	01/21/2025	What are other energy transfer molecules besides ATP?
Published	01/21/2025	What do NADH and FADH2 transport?
Published	01/21/2025	What is NAD+ and FAD?
Published	01/21/2025	What is NADH and FADH2?
Published	01/21/2025	A molecule that oxidizes (takes e- from) NADH or FADH2 must be {{c1::more}} electronegative than NADH/FADH2.
Published	01/21/2025	What are the four general steps of cellular respiration and where do they occur?
Published	01/21/2025	Glycolysis: What is being added, removed, used, made, rearranged?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the general steps of glycolysis?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the end products of glycolysis?
Published	01/21/2025	Is O2 required in glycolysis? Is CO2 made?
Published	01/21/2025	Why is ATP used during glycolysis?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the net amount of ATP produced (per glucose molecule)?
Published	01/21/2025	Where does NADH from glycolysis go?
Published	01/21/2025	What happens if there is no O2 or no mitochondria (like in RBC)?
Published	01/21/2025	What happens after glycolysis in the presence of O2 vs. w/o O2?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the purpose of fermentation? Why is it important?
Published	01/21/2025	What must happen to pyruvate before entering citric acid cycle?
Published	01/21/2025	Where is pyruvate transported after glycosis?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the products of pyruvate oxidation per pyruvate?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the 8 steps of the citric acid cycle?
Published	01/21/2025	Where does the citric acid cycle occur?
Published	01/21/2025	Where does carbon go from citric acid cycle?
Published	01/21/2025	Where does all the bond energy go?
Published	01/21/2025	What are the products of the citric acid cycle per cycle? What about per glucose?
Published	01/21/2025	How much ATP is produced in the ETC and oxidative phosphorylation?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the NADH reaction for ETC?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the net reaction of FADH2?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the difference between each complex?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the final electron acceptor?
Published	01/21/2025	What complexes are H+ pumps?
Published	01/21/2025	Cytochrome complexes move H+ from a area of _____concentration to a area of _____concentration
Published	01/21/2025	What is the purpose of moving H+?
Published	01/21/2025	Is NADH of FADH2 more EN?
Published	01/30/2025	Why does NADH make more ATP than FADH2?
Published	01/21/2025	Since there are no dedicated pathways to break down fats or proteins to form ATP how can they be used?
Published	01/21/2025	How is excess glucose stored?
Published	02/06/2025	When does glucose convert to glycogen?
Published	01/21/2025	When is glycogen ---> glucose?
Published	01/21/2025	Why can RBC only use glucose for energy?
Published	01/21/2025	What is gluconeogensis?
Published	01/21/2025	What do the building blocks for gluconeogenesis come from?
Published	01/21/2025	What substrates cannot be used for gluconeogenesis?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the process of the gluconeogensis like?
Published	01/21/2025	What step is not reversible in glycosis? What is the work around?
Published	01/21/2025	Where is lactate in the muscle sent to?
Published	01/21/2025	What is glucose sent back to the muscled used for?
Published	01/21/2025	What provides the ATP for gluconeogensis?
Published	01/21/2025	How are fructose and galactose used?
Published	01/21/2025	Do cells perfer glucose or fructose?
Published	01/21/2025	What is excess fructose converted by the liver into?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the first prcoess in fat catabolism of triglycerides?
Published	01/21/2025	What is beta oxidation?
Published	01/21/2025	Are the fatty acid part of a triglyceride capable of gluconeogensis?
Published	01/21/2025	What is the glycerol used for from tiglyceride?
Published	01/21/2025	Can glycerol be used for gluconeogensis?
Published	01/21/2025	How can fatty acids be synthesized?
Published	01/21/2025	How is glycerol synthesized?
Published	01/21/2025	Why can't we take pyruvate and run it through the citric acid cycle to make acetyl coA in order to make oxaloacetate for PEP?
Published	01/21/2025	How are proteins first broken down to AA?
Published	01/21/2025	What needs to be removed before AA can be metabolized? What happens to this?
Published	01/21/2025	What is deamination?
Published	01/21/2025	What is transamination?
Published	01/21/2025	What can the keto acid be converted to?
Published	01/21/2025	What amino acids can you use for gluconeogensis?
Published	01/21/2025	What cannot be used for gluconeogensis?
Published	01/21/2025	How are AA synthesized?
Published	01/21/2025	How many AA can we make?
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