Notes in PTH.S1.L04.The Lungs

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Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Small cell carcinoma}} is almost always smoking related and with a very aggressive clinical course
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Chylothorax}} is a pleural effusion that is associated with accumulation of milky fluid, usually lymphatic of origin
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Haemophilus influenzae}} is the most common bacterial cause of acute exacerbations of COPD
Published	10/21/2024	The {{c1::Red hepatization}} stage of inflammatory response in lobar pneumonia wherein there is massive confluent exudation, as neutrophils, red cells…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Pancinar (panlobular) emphysema}} is a type of emphysema associated with alpha-1 trypsin deficiency
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Pulmonary Hypoplasia}} is a defect in the development of both lungs characterized by decrease in lung size
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1:: Foregut Cyst}} is a congenital anomaly characterized by abnormal detachment of primitive foregut. The detachment is mostly located in the {{c1:…
Published	10/21/2024	Bronchogenic cysts (a type of Foregut cysts) is rarely connected to the {{c1:: tracheobronchial tree}} and is lined by {{c1:: Ciliated pseudostratifie…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1:: Atelectasis}} is the collapse of previously inflated lung while {{c1::neonatal atelectasis}} is incomplete expansion of the lungs
Published	10/21/2024	Types of acquired atelectasis:{{c1:: Resorption atelectasis}} caused by obstruction of airway in which air is resorbed from distal alveoli which colla…
Published	10/21/2024	The accumulation of excessive interstitial fluid in the alveoli is called {{c1:: Pulmonary edema}}
Published	10/21/2024	Hemodynamic pulmonary edema is caused by increased {{c1:: hydrostatic pressure}} and occurs mostly in {{c1::left-sided}} congestive heart failure
Published	10/21/2024	Heart failure cells are characteristic of cardiogenic pulmonary edema, these are actually {{c1::Hemosiderin-laden}} macrophages
Published	10/21/2024	Non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema is due to {{c1::microvascular}} injury causing increased {{c1:: capillary permeability}}Primary injury to the vascular…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1:: Acute lung injury (ALI)}} is an abrupt onset of hypoxemia and bilateral pulmonary edema in the absence of {{c1:: cardiac failure}}{{c1:: Acute …
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1:: Acute interstitial pneumonia}} is a condition known to cause acute onset of ALI which rapidly progresses and in the absence of known trigger
Published	10/21/2024	ALI/ARDS is a condition initiated by injury of the {{c1:: pneumocytes and pulmonary endothelium}} which causes a vicious cycle of increasing inflammat…
Published	10/21/2024	Acute exudative stage of ALI/ARDs is characterized by heavy, firm, red, and boggy lungs with {{c1::Diffuse alveolar damage}} Alveolar walls become lin…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Proliferative or organizing stage}} is characterized by type 2 pneumocytes proliferate and granulation tissue forms in the alveolar walls and sp…
Published	10/21/2024	Fibrotic stage of ALI/ARDS is characterized by {{c1:: fibrotic thickening (scarring)}} of the septa ensues
Published	10/21/2024	Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) lesions are not evenly distributed Areas that are {{c1:: stiff and poorly aerated}}Areas with normal levels…
Published	10/21/2024	Edema of undetermined origin{{c1::High Altitude}}{{c2::Neurogenic}}
Published	10/21/2024	Edema of indirect injury {{c1::Blood transfusion related}}{{c2::Drugs and chemicals}}{{c3::Systemic inflammatory response syndrome}}
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Restrictive Lung Diseases}} characterized by reduced expansion of lung parenchyma and decreased total lung capacity.
Published	10/21/2024	The {{c1::FEV1/FVC ratio}} remains normal in restrictive lung diseases despite decreases in total lung capacity and FEV1
Published	10/21/2024	Two categories of restrictive lung diseases: {{c1::chronic interstitial and infiltrative diseases, and chest wall disorders.}}
Published	10/21/2024	Chronic interstitial pulmonary diseases are characterized by {{c1::inflammation and fibrosis of the lung interstitium}}
Published	10/21/2024	The functional abnormalities associated with chronic interstitial pulmonary diseases {{c1::reductions in diffusion capacity}},{{c1::lung volume}},{{c1…
Published	10/21/2024	Chest radiographs of chronic interstitial pulmonary diseases typically show {{c1::bilateral::bilateral or unilateral}} lesions in the form of {{c2::sm…
Published	10/21/2024	Name a major category of chronic interstitial lung disease associated with fibrosis
Published	10/21/2024	Name a granulomatous chronic interstitial lung disease {{c1::sarcoidosis/hypersensitivity pneumonitis}}
Published	10/21/2024	Name a smoking-related chronic interstitial lung disease
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Thrombi in the deep veins of the leg}} is the usual source of pulmonary embolism
Published	10/21/2024	The two deleterious pathophysiologic consequences of emboli are {{c1::Respiratory compromise and hemodynamic compromise}}
Published	10/21/2024	The mean pulmonary artery pressure that defines pulmonary hypertension is {{c1::greater than or equal to 25 mm Hg at rest}}
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Plexiform lesions}} is the characteristic finding in advanced pulmonary hypertension involving small arteries
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Prednisone and/or azathioprine}} is the treatment for idiopathic pulmonary hemosiderosis
Published	10/21/2024	The primary cause of lung and kidney injury in Good Pasture Syndrome is {{c1::circulating autoantibodies against the non-collagenous domain of the alp…
Published	10/21/2024	What are the microscopic features of the lung injury in this condition?
Published	10/21/2024	Initial clinical symptoms of Good Pasture Syndrome
Published	10/21/2024	Treatment options for Good Pasture Syndrome {{c1::Plasmapheresis and immunosuppressive therapy}}
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Hemoptysis}} is the most common presenting symptom of Polyangiitis with Granulomatosis
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Less than 0.7}} is the FEV1/FVC ratio that generally indicates obstructive lung disease
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Centriacinar (centrilobular) emphysema}} is the most common form of emphysema, particularly in heavy smokers
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Spirometry}} is the diagnostic test used to confirm Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Multiple enlarged airspaces, sometimes forming cyst-like structures}} is the characteristic finding in distal acinar (paraseptal) emphysema
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Exposure to noxious particles or gases}} is the primary cause of COPD as defined by the WHO
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Protease-antiprotease imbalance}} is the imbalance associated with the development of {{c2::emphysema}}
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Mucus hypersecretion}} is the earliest feature of {{c2::chronic bronchitis}} pathogenesis
Published	10/21/2024	The {{c2::Reid index}} used to assess {{c1::the increase in size of the mucous gland}} in chronic bronchitis
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::IgE-mediated (type I) hypersensitivity reaction}} is the type of hypersensitivity reaction associated with atopic asthma
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Unremitting asthma attack that can be fatal}} is the characteristic feature of acute severe asthma (status asthmaticus)
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::IL-4}} is the cytokine responsible for stimulating the production of {{c2::IgE}} in asthma
Published	10/21/2024	{{c2::Curschmann spirals}} are {{c1::mucus}} plugs that may result from extrusion of mucus plugs from {{c1::subepithelial}} mucous gland ducts or {{c1…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::IL-13 gene (Interleukin-13)}} is the gene that has the strongest and most consistent associations with {{c2::asthma or allergic disease}}
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Activation of locally recruited eosinophils}} is the role of {{c2::IL-5}} in asthma pathogenesis
Published	10/21/2024	{{c2::Charcot-Leyden}} crystals are composed of {{c1::eosinophil}}-derived protein {{c1::galectin-10}}
Published	10/21/2024	Which lobes are usually affected by bronchiectasis? {{c1::Lower lobes bilaterally}}
Published	10/21/2024	What is the gross appearance of airways in bronchiectasis?
Published	10/21/2024	Which bacteria are commonly found in sputum cultures from patients with bronchiectasis? {{c1::Haemophilus influenzae}} (approximately 50%) and {{c1::P…
Published	10/21/2024	What are the clinical features of bronchiectasis?
Published	10/21/2024	What are the major pathologic changes in chronic bronchitis?
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Streptococcus pneumoniae}} is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)
Published	10/21/2024	bacteria commonly associated with aspiration pneumoniaAnaerobic oral flora {{c1::Bacteroides}}{{c1::Prevotella}}{{c1::Fusobacterium}} {{c1::Peptostrep…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Community-acquired bacterial pneumonias}} type of pneumonia characterized by lung infection in otherwise healthy individuals acquired from the n…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Streptococcus pneumoniae}} pathogen identified as Gram-positive, lancet-shaped diplococci in sputum Gram staining
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Gram-negative rods}}, {{c1::Enterobacteriaceae (Klebsiella spp., Serratia marcescens, Escherichia coli)}}, {{c1::Pseudomonas spp.}}, {{c1::Staph…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Haemophilus influenzae}} organism that is the most common bacterial cause of acute exacerbations of COPD
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Thick mucoid (often blood-tinged) sputum}} is the characteristic sputum appearance in Klebsiella pneumoniae infections
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Staphylococcus aureus}} bacterial cause of pneumonia most commonly associated with intravenous drug users and endocarditis
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Inhalation of aerosolized organisms or aspiration of contaminated drinking water}} is the mode of transmission for Legionella pneumophila
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Moraxella catarrhalis}} organism that is the second most common bacterial cause of acute exacerbations of COPD
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Lobular bronchopneumonia}} type of pneumonia characterized by patchy consolidation of the lung and neutrophil-rich exudate filling the bronchi, …
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Abrupt onset of high fever, shaking chills, cough producing mucopurulent sputum, occasionally hemoptysis, pleuritic pain, and pleural friction r…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Influenza Type A}} is the virus known to infect humans, pigs, horses, and birds, and is a major cause of pandemics and epidemics
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::SARS-CoV-2}} virus that binds to the ACE2 protein on the surface of pulmonary alveolar epithelial cells, explaining its tropism for the lung
Published	10/21/2024	What are the risk factors for hospital-acquired pneumonia? {{c1::Severe underlying disease, immunosuppression, prolonged antibiotic therapy, invasive …
Published	10/21/2024	What is the most frequent cause of lung abscesses? {{c1::Aspiration of infective material}}
Published	10/21/2024	How is Histoplasmosis transmitted? {{c1::Through inhalation of dust particles from soil contaminated with bird or bat droppings that contain small spo…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::They undergo fibrosis and concentric calcification, giving a tree-bark appearance}} is the characteristic appearance of granulomas in histoplasm…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Blastomycosis dermatitidis}} is the fungal infection associated with a thick, double-contoured cell wall and visible nuclei in tissue
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Thick-walled, non-budding spherules often filled with small endospores}} is the typical morphology of Coccidioides immitis in tissue
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Less than 200 cells/mm³}} In HIV-infected individuals, this CD4+ T cell count range is associated with an increased risk of Pneumocystis pneumon…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Serologic tests for antibodies and fungal antigens, culture, or identification of the fungus in tissue biopsies}} are diagnostic methods used to…
Published	10/21/2024	LUNG TRANSPLANTATION Indications may include almost all non-neoplastic terminal lung disease: {{c1::End-stage COPD}} {{c1::Idiopathic pulmonary fibros…
Published	10/21/2024	LUNG TRANSPLANTATIONComplicationsPulmonary infections Immunocompromised Early posttransplant period: {{c1::bacterial infections::Most common infection…
Published	10/21/2024	LUNG TRANSPLANTATIONComplicationsAcute lung allograft rejection {{c1::Several weeks to months::Time frame}} after surgery But may present years later …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMAS {{c1::Lung cancer}} is currently the most frequently diagnosed major cancer and the most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASMorphology {{c1::Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia}} {{c2::≤5mm::Size}} Dysplastic pneumocytes lining alveolar walls that are mildly …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASMorphology {{c1::Squamous Cell carcinoma}} Tend to arise in the {{c2::central/hilar}} region More Common In {{c3::men::men or women}…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASMorphology {{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma}} Highly malignant and most aggressive lung tumor Strong relationship to cigarette smoking {{…
Published	10/21/2024	CARCINOMASMorphology {{c1::Large Cell Carcinoma}} Undifferentiated Cells have large nuclei, prominent nucleoli, and a moderate amount of cytoplasm Dia…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASMorphology {{c1::Combined Carcinoma}} Combined histology Distant spread occurs through both lymphatic and hematogenous spread Tumors…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASMorphology Secondary pathology Local effects {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} (enophthalmos, ptosis, miosis, anhidrosis) Occurs when apical …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASClinical FeaturesInsidious and aggressive Major presenting complaints: {{c1::cough}} (75%), {{c1::weight loss}} (40%), {{c1::chest p…
Published	10/21/2024	CARCINOMASTreatmentIn patients with adenocarcinoma and activating mutations in EGFR or in other tyrosine kinases, kinase inhibitors prolongs survival …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: NEUROENDOCRINE PROLIFERATION AND TUMORS{{c1::Virtually all::No/Some/Most/All?}} pulmonary neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia are secondary to {{c…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: NEUROENDOCRINE PROLIFERATION AND TUMORSCarcinoid Tumors Patients are mostly {{c1::less::older/less}} than 60 years old; {{c1::equal incidence …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: NEUROENDOCRINE PROLIFERATION AND TUMORSGross Morphology of Carcinoid Tumors{{c1::Finger-like or spherical polypoid::shape?}} mass that commonl…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: NEUROENDOCRINE PROLIFERATION AND TUMORSMicroscopic Morphology of Carcinoid TumorsPatterns: {{c1::Organoid::O}} {{c1::Trabecular::T}} {{c1::Pal…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: NEUROENDOCRINE PROLIFERATION AND TUMORSClinical Features of Carcinoid TumorsPersistent cough, hemoptysis, impairment of drainage of respirator…
Published	10/21/2024	MISCELLANEOUS TUMORS {{c1::Pulmonary hamartoma}} Usually discovered incidentally as rounded, radio-opacity ({{c2::coin lesion::name of lesion?}}) on c…
Published	10/21/2024	MISCELLANEOUS TUMORS {{c1::Lymphangioleiomyomatosis}} Primarily affects {{c2::young women of child-bearing age::Group at risk}} Proliferation of periv…
Published	10/21/2024	MISCELLANEOUS TUMORS {{c1::Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor}} Rare; common in {{c2::children::Group at risk}} Presents with fever, cough, chest pain…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::METASTATIC TUMORS}} The lung is the most common site of {{c1::metastatic neoplasms}} Morphology Usually shows multiple discrete nodule ({{c2::ca…
Published	10/21/2024	PLEURAL EFFUSION Pleural fluid Normally not greater than {{c1::15}} mL of serous Relatively acellular Clear fluid Accumulation: {{c1::Increased::Incre…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Pleural effusion}}The most common manifestation of both primary and secondary pleural diseases which may be {{c2::inflammatory}} or {{c2::non-in…
Published	10/21/2024	Inflammatory Pleural Effusion Serous, serofibrinous, and fibrinous pleuritis all have an inflammatory basis The most common causes of pleuritis are di…
Published	10/21/2024	Non-Inflammatory Pleural Effusion {{c1::Hydrothorax}} Serous fluid Clear and straw-colored Most common cause → {{c2::Heart failure}} {{c1::Hemothorax}…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::PNEUMOTHORAX}} Air or gas in the pleural cavities Most commonly associated with {{c2::emphysema}}, {{c2::asthma}}, and {{c2::tuberculosis}}
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Spontaneous}} pneumothorax May complicate any form of pulmonary disease that causes emphysematous changes {{c1::Spontaneous idiopathic}} pneumot…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Traumatic}} pneumothorax Perforating injury to the chest wall Resorption of the air in the pleural space occurs in spontaneous and traumatic pne…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::Tension}} pneumothorax Occurs when a pleural defect acts as a flap valve and permits the entrance of air during inspiration but fails to permit …
Published	10/21/2024	PLEURAL TUMORS{{c1::Secondary metastatic}} tumors ● Are {{c2::more::less, more, or as?}} common than primary ● Most commonly from a primary malignancy…
Published	10/21/2024	PLEURAL TUMORS{{c1::Solitary fibrous}} tumor Inversion of {{c2::chr 12::which chromosome?}}, involving the genes {{c3::NAB2}} and {{c3::STAT6}} {{c3::…
Published	10/21/2024	PLEURAL TUMORS{{c1::Malignant mesothelium}} Heavy exposure to {{c2::asbestos}} →May see {{c2::Asbestos}} bodies and asbestos plaque {{c3::Homozygous::…
Published	10/21/2024	PLEURAL TUMORSMorphology of Malignant mesotheliumDiffuse lesion that spreads widely in the pleural space and is usually associated with extensive pleu…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASEtiology and Pathogenesis Acquired mutations Adenocarcinoma Most common subtype in {{c1::non-smokers::smokers or non-smokers}} Gain-…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1:: Pulmonary sequestration}} is a congenital lung anomaly characterized by discrete area of lung tissue not connected to airways and has an abnorm…
Published	10/21/2024	Edema of Increased Hydrostatic pressure (increased pulmonary venous pressure){{c1::Left-sided failure}} (common){{c2::Volume overload}}{{c3::Pulmonary…
Published	10/21/2024	Edema of Decrease oncotic pressure (less common){{c1::Hypoalbuminemia}}{{c2::Nephrotic syndrome}}{{c3::Liver disease}}{{c4::Protein losing enteropathi…
Published	10/21/2024	Edema of direct injury {{c1::Infections}}{{c2::Inhaled gasses}}{{c3::Radiation}}{{c4::Lung trauma}}
Published	10/21/2024	The common symptoms of chronic interstitial pulmonary diseases are {{c1::dyspnea}} {{c1::tachypnea}}{{c1::end-inspiratory crackles}}{{c1::and eventual…
Published	10/21/2024	LUNG TRANSPLANTATIONChronic Rejection of lung allograft associated with bronchiole = {{c1::Bronchiolitis obliterans::can be seen at the right part of …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASEtiology and Pathogenesis {{c1::Tobacco smoking}} About 80% occur in active smokers or those who stopped recently Nearly linear corr…
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASEtiology and Pathogenesis Lung Cancer in never-smokersCommonly occurs in {{c1::women}} Most are {{c1::adenocarcinomas}} Most likely …
Published	10/21/2024	TUMORS: CARCINOMASEtiology and Pathogenesis Precursor lesions Four types of morphologic precursor epithelial lesions: {{c1::Atypical adenomatous hyper…
Published	10/21/2024	What are the common morphologic changes seen in all viral infections of the lung?
Published	10/21/2024	Which organisms are most commonly associated with health care-associated pneumonia?
Published	10/21/2024	What are the risk factors for hospital-acquired pneumonia?
Published	10/21/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0357:top=.0991:width=.0906:height=.0345}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.5162:top=.0991:width=.419:height=.0345}}{{c…
Published	10/21/2024	{{c5::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0325:top=.453:width=.4388:height=.1614:oi=1}}{{c8::image-occlusion:rect:left=.5157:top=.6639:width=.208:height=.0708:…
Published	10/21/2024	What are the complications associated with lobular bronchopneumonia
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