Notes in Behavioral

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Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Reliability::reliability/validity}} refers to the extent to which an experiment or measure can consistently produce similar results (eg, a test…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Internal::external/internal}} validity refers to the extent to which a measure or experiment produces a true result (eg, measures what it was i…
Published	11/14/2024	The CNS is composed of white matter and gray matter. {{c1::Gray::Gray/White}} matter comprises unmyelinated axons, neuronal cell bodies, and dendrit…
Published	11/14/2024	In the context of the sensory and motor systems for white matter, {{c1::afferent::afferent/efferent}} neurons send signals toward the brain, and {{c1…
Published	11/14/2024	Peripheral nervous system has two branches: the {{c1::somatic}} nervous system and the {{c1::autonomic}} nervous system.
Published	11/14/2024	The somatic nervous system includes the {{c1::sensory}} neurons that relay information from the body to the CNS and the {{c1::motor}} neurons that re…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::autonomic (ANS)::autonomic/somatic}} nervous system controls subconscious, automatic functions that are not subject to voluntary control.
Published	11/14/2024	The autonomic nervous system is divided into the {{c1::sympathetic}} nervous system, which helps the body prepare for stressors, and the {{c1::parasy…
Published	11/14/2024	Cells of the nervous system include both {{c1::neurons}}, which are responsible for sending chemical or electrical signals to other cells and {{c…
Published	11/14/2024	Branches that extend from the soma (cell body) of a neuron are called {{c1::dendrites}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) bind to postsynaptic receptors on {{c1::dendrites}}, causing the neuron to respond. Then, the {{c1::axon}} rel…
Published	11/14/2024	Produced by glia, {{c1::myelin}} is nearly continuous along the length of an axon, interrupted only at small, regularly spaced sites called the {{c1:…
Published	11/14/2024	The unequal concentration of charged ions between the inside and the outside of all living cells determines the {{c1::membrane}} potential (voltage d…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::action potential}} is a change in the membrane potential of a neuron and results in the transmission of an electrical signal down its axon.
Published	11/14/2024	At rest, Na+ channels are {{c1::closed::open/closed}}. Depolarization (more positive membrane potential) occurs when Na+ channels are {{c1::opened::op…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::absolute refractory period}} refers to the time during which no new action potentials can be generated, regardless of the strength of the s…
Published	11/14/2024	Action potentials travel down axons with larger diameters {{c1::faster::slower/faster}} than smaller-diameter axons. Myelinated axons transmit neural …
Published	11/14/2024	At chemical synapses, when an action potential reaches the {{c1::axon terminal}} of the presynaptic neuron, neurotransmitters are released from the {…
Published	11/14/2024	At excitatory synapses, the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron becomes more {{c1::positive::negative/positive}} (ie, depolarizes), and if …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)}} is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS, and {{c1::glycine}} is also a primarily inhibitory ne…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Acetylcholine}} is the neurotransmitter released by somatic motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction. In addition, it plays an important ro…
Published	11/14/2024	The catecholamines are a category of neurotransmitter that includes {{c1::dopamine}}, {{c1::epinephrine (also called adrenaline)}}, and {{c1::norepin…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Dopamine::Neurotransmitter}} is involved in movement, reward, motivation, and cognition.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Epinephrine and norepinephrine::Neurotransmitter}} are involved in autonomic nervous system responses and contribute to wakefulness, alertness…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Serotonin::neurotransmitter}} is involved in sleep/wake regulation, mood, and appetite, among others.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Endorphins}} are peptides that act as neurotransmitters. They are opioids produced by the body that, similar to morphine, modulate pain, as we…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Agonists::Agonists/Antagonists}} mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter (eg, by inhibiting reuptake).
Published	11/14/2024	The brain can be described as comprising three major regions: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. Major forebrain structures includ…
Published	11/14/2024	The limbic system of the forebrain contains several structures. The {{c1::amygdala}} is involved in aggression and emotions such as fear.
Published	11/14/2024	The limbic system of the forebrain contains several structures. The {{c1::hypothalamus}} releases hormones and controls the pituitary gland's hor…
Published	11/14/2024	The limbic system of the forebrain contains several structures. The {{c1::hippocampus}} is involved in learning and memory, such as the formation…
Published	11/14/2024	The limbic system of the forebrain contains several structures. The {{c1::thalamus}} contributes to sensation and perception; it is responsible f…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::midbrain (mesencephalon)}} is an area of the brainstem that connects the brain and the spinal cord.
Published	11/14/2024	In the midbrain, the {{c1::superior colliculus}} processes visual information, and the {{c1::inferior colliculus}} processes auditory information.
Published	11/14/2024	The midbrain contains two areas with large numbers of dopaminergic neurons. The {{c1::substantia nigra (SN)}} projects axons to the basal ganglia and…
Published	11/14/2024	The hindbrain (rhombencephalon) is made up of the cerebellum and the lower part of the brainstem, including the {{c1::medulla}}, {{c1::pons}}, and {{…
Published	11/14/2024	In the hindbrain, the brainstem region closest to the spinal cord is the {{c1::medulla}}, which controls critical functions such as breathing and hea…
Published	11/14/2024	In the hindbrain, the {{c1::pons}} lies above the medulla and regulates sleeping, waking, and dreaming.
Published	11/14/2024	In the hindbrain, the {{c1::reticular formation}} is a series of neurons that spans the entire brainstem and contributes to consciousness and wakeful…
Published	11/14/2024	Located behind the brainstem, the {{c1::cerebellum}} integrates visual, vestibular, and kinesthetic information to maintain balance and posture, coor…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::cerebral cortex}} is the outermost portion of the brain. It can be divided into the {{c1::frontal}}, {{c1::temporal}}, {{c1::parietal}}, a…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::frontal}} lobe of the cerebral cortex is responsible for higher-order processes (eg, planning, decision-making, personality, judgment). Th…
Published	11/14/2024	Voluntary muscle movements also involve the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe's {{c1::motor cortex}} relays motor commands from the brain to the skelet…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::temporal}} lobe contains the {{c1::auditory}} cortex, an area primarily responsible for processing auditory stimuli based on input from the…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::parietal}} lobe is responsible for proprioception (awareness of one's body position in space) and somatosensation (eg, perception of touch,…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::occipital}} lobe is located in the back of the cerebral cortex and is responsible primarily for visual processing. Its {{c1::visual}} cort…
Published	11/14/2024	The brain's right and left hemispheres are each specialized for certain processes; this specialization is known as {{c1::hemispheric lateralization}}…
Published	11/14/2024	In the majority of people, the {{c1::right::left/right}} hemisphere is crucial for visuospatial processing. In contrast, the {{c1::left::left/right}}…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::corpus callosum}} is a bundle of myelinated axonal projections connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain, allowing the two hem…
Published	11/14/2024	Individuals with a severed corpus callosum ("split brain") experience disrupted communication between the two hemispheres. Information presented to a…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::spinal cord}} is a structure in the central nervous system that facilitates the brain's communication with the peripheral nervous system (P…
Published	11/14/2024	Reflex arc involves the following steps: {{c1::Somatosensory}} receptors in the skin are stimulated by something painful (eg, a prick from a shar…
Published	11/14/2024	Hormones are regulated by a brain structure called the {{c1::hypothalamus}}. It controls body-wide endocrine function by processing inputs from t…
Published	11/14/2024	The hypothalamus has several nuclei with specialized functions. One of these nuclei is the {{c1::suprachiasmatic nucleus}}, which is the area that r…
Published	11/14/2024	The pituitary gland can be divided into two separate lobes, the {{c1::anterior}} pituitary and the {{c1::posterior}} pituitary.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Adaptive value}} refers to the extent to which a trait or behavior helps an organism survive and reproduce.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Heredity}}, sometimes referred to as nature, describes genetic influences on development (eg, genes coding for eye color). In contrast, the {…
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::teratogen}} is any factor (eg, a drug or virus) that negatively impacts prenatal development.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Gross}} motor skills involve large muscle movements (eg, waving an arm). {{c1::Fine}} motor skills involve smaller muscle movements that allo…
Published	11/14/2024	The neuroimaging method of {{c1::Computerized tomography (CT)}} uses computer-combined multiple X-rays taken at different angles to provide informatio…
Published	11/14/2024	The neuroimaging method of {{c1::Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)}} uses powerful magnets to create detailed images and provides information about the…
Published	11/14/2024	The neuroimaging method of {{c1::Positron emission tomography (PET)}} uses a scanner to detect radioactive glucose tracer and provides information abo…
Published	11/14/2024	The neuroimaging method of {{c1::Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)}} uses a scanner to detect the differential properties of blood that is …
Published	11/14/2024	The neuroimaging method of {{c1::Electroencephalography (EEG)}} uses electrodes placed on the scalp to provide information about {{c1::electrical fluc…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Lesioning}} involves destroying specific areas of the brain. For example, scientists could use this technique to learn about the function o…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::Moro (also called the startle reflex)}} reflex , which causes an infant to throw back their head, extend their arms and legs, cry, and …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Rooting}} reflex causes an infant to turn their head and open their mouth when stroked on the cheek
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::patellar (also called the knee-jerk reflex)}} reflex causes the leg to extend when the patellar tendon (below the kneecap) is tapped
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::Babinski}} reflex causes an infant to bend their big toe back while their other toes fan outward when the bottom of their foot is stroked
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Transduction}} occurs when sensory receptors (eg, olfactory receptors) convert environmental stimuli (eg, a smell) into neural signals. The ne…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Sensory adaptation}} occurs when the constant presence of a sensory stimulus causes sensory receptor cells to send fewer messages to the brain …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Difference threshold, also called the just-noticeable difference (JND),}} is the point at which an individual can detect a difference between t…
Published	11/14/2024	Weber's law states that the proportion of {{c1::the size of the just-noticeable-difference (JND)}} to the {{c1::original stimulus intensity}} is …
Published	11/14/2024	Gustav Fechner, studied the {{c1::absolute threshold}}, the point at which an individual can detect {{c1::a new sensation (eg, see a light in the dis…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Signal detection}} theory explores how judgments or decisions are made amid "noise" (external or internal distractions). Four possible outcomes…
Published	11/14/2024	In signal detection theory, when a signal (eg, auditory tone) is correctly perceived as present, it is a {{c1::correct detection, or a "hit."}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In signal detection theory, when a signal is not detected even though it is present, it is a {{c1::false negative, or a "miss."}}
Published	11/14/2024	In signal detection theory, when a signal is absent but a perception is erroneously reported, this is a {{c1::false positive}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In signal detection theory, when the signal is accurately judged absent, it is a {{c1::correct rejection}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Sensory receptors}} are specialized cells that detect stimuli in the internal (eg, blood pressure) or external (eg, light) environment and tra…
Published	11/14/2024	The major types of sensory receptors are {{c1::mechanoreceptors}}, {{c1::thermoreceptors}}, {{c1::photoreceptors}}, and {{c1::chemoreceptors}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Mechanoreceptors::Type of sensory receptor}} are sensitive to mechanical stimulation caused by pressure, vibration, or movement. For example, …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Thermoreceptors::Type of sensory receptor}} found in the skin are sensitive to temperature.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Photoreceptors::Type of sensory receptor}} are sensitive to light. The two main types of these are {{c1::rods}} and {{c1::cones}} and they enabl…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Chemoreceptors::Type of sensory receptor}} are sensitive to chemicals and are the type of receptors involved in taste and smell. In these chem…
Published	11/14/2024	Sensory information from all the other senses (except smell) travels to the {{c1::thalamus}} before further brain areas. Olfactory receptor neurons tr…
Published	11/14/2024	Sensory information is converted into neural signals. The process of {{c1::perception}} involves integrating, organizing, and making meaning out of …
Published	11/14/2024	Perception guided by preexisting information or beliefs is called {{c1::top-down (also called conceptually driven processing)}} processing . Fo…
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::perceptual set}} describes this tendency to focus on certain details of a stimulus while overlooking other details.
Published	11/14/2024	Principles of {{c1::perceptual organization}} (eg, form, constancy, depth, motion) are top-down cognitive processes wherein the brain's interpretatio…
Published	11/14/2024	The principle of {{c1::perceptual constancy}} describes the tendency to perceive an object as unchanging despite slight changes to the object that oc…
Published	11/14/2024	The ability to see in three dimensions is called {{c1::depth perception}} and is enabled by the brain's interpretation of the two-dimensional informa…
Published	11/14/2024	These are all examples of {{c1::monocular}} depth cues. Name them.
Published	11/14/2024	These are all examples of {{c1::binocular}} depth cues. Name them.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Phi}} phenomenon describes how adjacent flashing lights create the perception of motion (ie, the lights appear to move).
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::Gestalt}} principles of perceptual organization describe how humans perceive sensory stimuli as a whole greater than the sum of their parts…
Published	11/14/2024	These are all examples of {{c1::Gestalt}} principles. Name them.
Published	11/14/2024	Light is an electromagnetic wave (ie, a form of electromagnetic radiation). {{c1::Wavelength}}, which describes the distance between the wave's peaks…
Published	11/14/2024	During the process of vision, light passes through several eye structures before reaching the {{c1::retina}}, the layer in the back of the eye contai…
Published	11/14/2024	At the front of the eye, the {{c1::cornea}} covers the pupil (ie, the opening in the eye's center that enables light to travel through the eye) and {…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::lens}} is a transparent structure that changes shape to sharpen the image projected onto the retina. The term {{c1::accommodation}} descri…
Published	11/14/2024	Cells called {{c1::photoreceptors (ie, rods and cones)}} in the retina convert light to {{c1::neural signals}}. {{c1::Rods}} are the receptor cells …
Published	11/14/2024	Signals from photoreceptors are passed to other retinal cells such as bipolar cells and then transmitted to {{c1::ganglion cells::cell 1}}. The axon…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::optic disc}} is the region of the retina where the optic nerve exits the back of the eye and the vessels that supply blood to the retina en…
Published	11/14/2024	For visual processing, the {{c1::optic nerve}} (comprising the axons of retinal ganglion cells) relays visual information from the eyes. At the {{c1…
Published	11/14/2024	In the primary visual cortex (V1) of the occipital lobe, cells called {{c1::feature detectors}} respond only to specific visual stimuli. Fo…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Parallel processing}} is the brain's ability to process different aspects of a stimulus simultaneously. For visual stimuli, the brain processe…
Published	11/14/2024	The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and the primary visual cortex (V1). The {{c1::parvo}} pathway includes the neurons responsible for the …
Published	11/14/2024	The processing and perception of color begin with the cells that detect color in the retina. The {{c1::trichromatic}} theory states that color v…
Published	11/14/2024	The processing and perception of color begin with the cells that detect color in the retina. The {{c1::opponent process}} theory states that colo…
Published	11/14/2024	Specialized components of the ear contribute to audition (ie, hearing). The {{c1::pinna}}, the visible part of the outer ear, funnels sound to the m…
Published	11/14/2024	Ossicles transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear. The vibrations move the fluid in a spiraled inner ear structure called the {{c1::cochlea}}, …
Published	11/14/2024	After the auditory receptors transduce sound, the auditory nerve, then carries the sound information from the inner ear to the {{c1::medial geniculate…
Published	11/14/2024	Pitch refers to how a sound is experienced as a high (eg, a whistle) or a low (eg, a bass drum) tone and perception of pitch is described by two theo…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Auditory localization}} describes how the brain perceives the source of sounds by comparing the difference between the arrival time and intensi…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Somatosensation}} is enabled by the activation of {{c1::somatosensory}} receptors in the skin that detect touch, pain, vibration, temperature, …
Published	11/14/2024	Different types of sensory receptors respond to different kinds of somatosensory stimuli (eg, touch, pain, temperature). {{c1::Mechanoreceptors}} de…
Published	11/14/2024	In the process of somatosensation, receptors transduce somatosensory stimuli (eg, touch, temperature) into neural signals. {{c1::Afferent neurons}} …
Published	11/14/2024	The parietal lobe is responsible for both {{c1::somatosensation}} and {{c1::proprioception (awareness of one's body position in space)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::spinal}} reflex enables the body to withdraw from a painful stimulus before the sensory information reaches the brain.
Published	11/14/2024	One model for somatic (bodily) pain, the {{c1::gate-control}} theory, states that pain signals to the brain are regulated by a neurological "gate" in…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Gustation}} (ie, the sense of taste) involves tastants (chemicals dissolved in saliva) activating {{c1::taste receptor}} cells in taste buds.&n…
Published	11/14/2024	There are five primary taste qualities (also called basic tastes): {{c1::sweet}}, {{c1::salty}}, {{c1::bitter}}, {{c1::sour}}, and {{c1::umami}} (ie, …
Published	11/14/2024	Taste receptor cells synapse on {{c1::gustatory afferent}} neurons, whose axons relay taste information to the brain through three cranial nerves. T…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Sensory interaction}} occurs when the senses influence each other. For example, both taste and smell contribute to the perception of flavor.&nbs…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Olfaction}} (ie, smell) occurs when odorants (airborne odor molecules dissolved in mucus) stimulate {{c1::olfactory receptor}} neurons, also ca…
Published	11/14/2024	In the process of smell, olfactory chemoreceptors transduce olfactory information. The {{c1::olfactory receptor}} neurons stimulate neurons within t…
Published	11/14/2024	Olfactory information bypasses the {{c1::thalamus}} and is instead sent directly to {{c1::cortical}} and {{c1::temporal}} lobe structures.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::kinesthetic}} sense is awareness of body position and movement (eg, knowing where one's limbs are without looking). In proprioception, mec…
Published	11/14/2024	In the kinesthetic process, {{c1::proprioceptors}} are stimulated in response to stretching or movement. Afferent sensory neurons relay information …
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::vestibular}} sense helps maintain the body's sense of balance and depends on two structures in the inner ear: the {{c1::semicircular}} cana…
Published	11/14/2024	The semicircular canals are three perpendicular fluid-filled canals. In each canal, a gelatinous structure called the {{c1::cupula}} contains the ve…
Published	11/14/2024	The two otolith organs are the {{c1::utricle}} and {{c1::saccule}}, located in the inner ear. Both contain hair cells that are located within a …
Published	11/14/2024	The semicircular canals detect {{c1::angular acceleration: when the head rotates, hair cells in the semicircular canals are stimulated}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The otolith organs detect {{c1::linear acceleration: when the head tilts, hair cells in the otolith organs are stimulated}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::vestibulocochlear}} nerve relays information from the semicircular canals and otolith organs directly to the {{c1::cerebellum}}, as well as …
Published	11/14/2024	Consciousness is an individual's awareness of the {{c1::environment and themselves}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Multiple brain areas contribute to alertness. The {{c1::reticular}} formation is a collection of neurons that spans the brainstem. Part of the…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Dissociation}} is the separation of certain thoughts, behaviors, or memories from normal consciousness.
Published	11/14/2024	Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory described three levels of consciousness: the {{c1::unconscious}} (entirely beyond conscious awareness), the {{c…
Published	11/14/2024	The neural basis of sleep includes brainstem neurons, principally neurons in the {{c1::pons}}, which play an important role in controlling sleep and …
Published	11/14/2024	Sleep is broadly divided into {{c1::non-rapid eye movement (NREM)}} sleep (stages N1-3) and {{c1::rapid eye movement (REM)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	An electroencephalography (EEG) depicts waves of brain activity reflective of the various sleep and waking states. Alpha and beta waves are high-fre…
Published	11/14/2024	An electroencephalography (EEG) depicts waves of brain activity reflective of the various sleep and waking states. Stage 1 sleep (N1), or "light…
Published	11/14/2024	An electroencephalography (EEG) depicts waves of brain activity reflective of the various sleep and waking states. The deepest stage of NREM sl…
Published	11/14/2024	An electroencephalography (EEG) depicts waves of brain activity reflective of the various sleep and waking states. During stage 2 sleep (N2), th…
Published	11/14/2024	An electroencephalography (EEG) depicts waves of brain activity reflective of the various sleep and waking states. REM sleep is characterized by brai…
Published	11/14/2024	In the {{c1::REM rebound}} effect, individuals deprived of REM sleep for even one night experience more REM sleep than usual the next night. Becaus…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Circadian rhythms}} are cycles in physiological activity (eg, hormone release) or behavior (eg, sleeping) that occur over 24-hour intervals. O…
Published	11/14/2024	Circadian rhythms are regulated by the {{c1::suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)}} of the hypothalamus and the {{c1::pineal gland}}. Photoreceptors in the…
Published	11/14/2024	Several theories seek to explain why people dream. The {{c1::activation synthesis hypothesis}} states that dreams result from the brain's attempt to m…
Published	11/14/2024	Several theories seek to explain why people dream. Sigmund Freud asserted that dreams are a type of {{c1::wish fulfillment, in which people satis…
Published	11/14/2024	Sleep-wake disorders fall broadly into two categories.{{c1::Dyssomnias}} are more common in adults and involve interference with the quality or timing…
Published	11/14/2024	Narcolepsy is an example of {{c1::dyssomnia::dyssomnia/parasomnia}}. It involves {{c1::sudden, excessive sleepiness and uncontrollable episodes o…
Published	11/14/2024	Insomnia is an example of {{c1::dyssomnia::dyssomnia/parasomnia}}. It involves {{c1::difficulty falling and/or staying asleep}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Sleep apnea is an example of {{c1::dyssomnia::dyssomnia/parasomnia}}. It involves {{c1::fragmented (ie, disrupted) sleep because the individual's…
Published	11/14/2024	Somnambulism is an example of {{c1::parasomnia::dyssomnia/parasomnia}}. It involves {{c1::sleepwalking}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Night terrors is an example of {{c1::parasomnia::dyssomnia/parasomnia}}. It involves {{c1::episodes of screaming, crying, or panic (ie, extreme d…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Stimulants}} are psychoactive drugs that increase activity in the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in an increased heart rate and feelin…
Published	11/14/2024	Psychoactive drugs that decrease activity in the CNS are called {{c1::depressants}}. These drugs enhance the action of {{c1::GABA}}, the brain’s princ…
Published	11/14/2024	Opioids (eg, morphine, heroin) are a class of {{c1::depressants}} that lessen pain and produce a relaxed state by mimicking the actions of {{c1::endo…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Hallucinogens}} are psychoactive drugs that cause distortions in perception in the absence of sensory input (eg, seeing colorful, distorted ima…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Psychological}} dependence entails the belief that the substance is necessary for daily functioning (eg, a longtime smoker believes that they m…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Physical}} dependence is the body's reliance on a substance (ie, tolerance and/or withdrawal).
Published	11/14/2024	Within the umbrella term of physical dependence, {{c1::tolerance}} occurs when increasing amounts of a substance must be consumed to feel the same lev…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Substance use}} disorders are characterized by the continuation of substance use despite significant negative effects, such as a disruption to …
Published	11/14/2024	A region of the brain particularly involved in problematic substance use is the {{c1::mesolimbic reward pathway}}. This pathway contains the dop…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::cocktail party}} effect is a selective attention process that occurs when an unconsciously processed stimulus triggers a person's attention…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Divided attention (sometimes referred to as multitasking)}} describes when an individual attends to more than one stimulus or task simultaneous…
Published	11/14/2024	Habituation, dishabituation, sensitization, and desensitization are all examples of {{c1::non-associative}} learning, which occurs when an organism ch…
Published	11/14/2024	Repeated exposure to a stimulus can result in a decreasing behavioral response over time, known as {{c1::habituation}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Dishabituation}} occurs when there is a renewed (ie, increased) response to a previously habituated stimulus.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Sensitization}} occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus produces an increase in a behavioral response over time.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Desensitization}} occurs when the behavioral response to a previously sensitized stimulus decreases over time.
Published	11/14/2024	In contrast to the simpler non-associative learning, associative learning occurs when an organism learns the connection between two {{c1::stimuli (as …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Classical conditioning}} is a type of associative learning that occurs when an organism associates a stimulus that did not previously elicit a m…
Published	11/14/2024	In classical conditioning, the stimulus that initially did not produce a meaningful response (eg, bell) is known as a {{c1::neutral stimulus (NS)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In classical conditioning, the stimulus that is physiologically arousing, which means they elicit an innate (unlearned) reaction is called the {{c1::u…
Published	11/14/2024	In classical conditioning, the innate (unlearned) reaction (eg, salivating) is called the {{c1::unconditioned response}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In classical conditioning, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus becomes a {{c1::conditioned stimulus (CS)}} when it a…
Published	11/14/2024	The first phase of classical conditioning is known as {{c1::acquisition}}. In this phase, an association is formed between {{c1::the unconditioned st…
Published	11/14/2024	In the second phase of classical conditioning, the {{c1::conditioned::conditioned/unconditioned}} stimulus (eg, bell) is presented alone in the absenc…
Published	11/14/2024	Following extinction in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus can be reinstated after a pause/rest period, which will lead to response to t…
Published	11/14/2024	In classical conditioning, {{c1::discrimination (also called stimulus discrimination)}} occurs when an organism responds to certain conditioned stimu…
Published	11/14/2024	In classical conditioning, {{c1::generalization (also called stimulus generalization)}} occurs when a stimulus similar to the original stimulus evoke…
Published	11/14/2024	Conditioned taste aversions occur because of {{c1::biological preparedness}}, the tendency to readily learn associations that promote survival.
Published	11/14/2024	Conditioned taste aversions possess several characteristics that render them a unique form of classical conditioning.In regards to number of pairings…
Published	11/14/2024	John Watson's Little Albert experiment studied {{c1::classically conditioned emotions (phobias)}} in humans by pairing {{c1::a white rat (NS) wit…
Published	11/14/2024	Another type of associative learning, {{c1::operant conditioning}}, occurs when an organism associates a behavior with a consequence. The likelihood o…
Published	11/14/2024	An individual compliments her boyfriend and smiles (ie, applies a desirable stimulus) after he cooks her dinner (ie, a behavior), which encourages h…
Published	11/14/2024	an individual's car stops making an annoying beeping sound (ie, removes an undesirable stimulus) after she buckles her seatbelt (ie, a behavior), whi…
Published	11/14/2024	An individual yells at her puppy (ie, applies an undesirable consequence) for jumping on guests (ie, a behavior), which decreases her puppy's jumpin…
Published	11/14/2024	A parent takes away a child's video games (ie, removes a desirable stimulus) in response to the child acting out (ie, a behavior), which leads to the…
Published	11/14/2024	Reinforcement schedules are used in operant conditioning to {{c1::train and/or maintain learned behaviors}}. {{c1::Fixed-ratio}} schedules provi…
Published	11/14/2024	Reinforcement schedules are used in operant conditioning to train and/or maintain learned behaviors. {{c1::Continuous}} schedules reward every re…
Published	11/14/2024	Reinforcement schedules are used in operant conditioning to train and/or maintain learned behaviors. {{c1::Variable-ratio}} schedules provide rew…
Published	11/14/2024	Reinforcement schedules are used in operant conditioning to train and/or maintain learned behaviors. {{c1::Fixed-interval}} schedules provide rew…
Published	11/14/2024	Reinforcement schedules are used in operant conditioning to train and/or maintain learned behaviors. {{c1::Variable-interval}} schedules provide …
Published	11/14/2024	In operant conditioning, the ratio schedules produce {{c1::rapid::slow/rapid}} response rates. The interval schedules, which provide reinforcement p…
Published	11/14/2024	Label the following as interval or ratio, variable or fixed. R = reinforcement. {{c1::see}}
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