Notes in Signal Transduction 1

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Published	09/07/2023	Signal transduction pathways are initiated by a {{c1::first messenger molecule (ligand)}} binding a receptor.
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Ligands (first messengers)}} initiate signaling cascades and are classified into four categories on the {{c2::the distance they travel}}
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Paracrine}} ligands travel only a short distance to interact with surrounding cells.
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Endocrine}} communication is used by {{c1::endocrine glands and cells}} and occurs when hormones are secreted into the bloodstream to travel to …
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Juxtacrine (aka contact dependent)}} communication occurs when ligands are bound to the initiating cell and must directly contact the recipient …
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Synaptic}} communication is utilized by neurons in which ligands are secreted into the small {{c1::synaptic space}} between the neuron and targe…
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Autocrine}} communication occurs when a cell responds to its own signals.
Published	09/07/2023	Ligand binding to a receptor triggers a series of protein-protein interactions, most often resulting in production of a {{c1::second messenger molecul…
Published	09/07/2023	Signalling pathways are terminated when {{c1::cell exhibits a change}}
Published	09/07/2023	Signaling pathways are often {{c1::interconnected}}, even if {{c1::different::same/different}} receptors were bound with {{c1::different::same/differe…
Published	09/07/2023	The primary difference in signaling pathways is in the {{c1::receptor bound by the ligand}}
Published	09/07/2023	Types of cell-cell communication include:1. {{c1::Paracrine}}2. {{c1::Endocrine}}3. {{c1::Juxtacrine (aka contact dependent)}}4. {{c1::Synaptic}}5. {{…
Published	09/07/2023	Common components in signaling pathways include:1. {{c1::Receptors}}2. {{c1::Intracellular signaling proteins}}3. {{c1::Signal amplification}}
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Receptors}} bind ligands with varying degrees of {{c1::affinity}} and {{c1::specificity}} to initiate a cellular response, and can be located at…
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Receptors}} are critical targets for {{c2::pharmaceutical interventions}}
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Intracellular signaling proteins}} continue to propagate the signal within a cell through various mechanisms
Published	09/07/2023	Mechanisms of intracellular signaling proteins include:1. {{c1::Phosphorylation (kinases) and dephosphorylation (phosphatases)}}2. {{c1::GTP hydrolysi…
Published	09/07/2023	Most signaling pathways utilize {{c1::second messenger molecules or small proteins}} that are capable of {{c2::amplifying the signal}} within the cell
Published	09/07/2023	Ligand may ellicit {{c1::different::same/different}} response in two {{c1::different::same/different}} cell types binding {{c1::same::same/different}}…
Published	09/07/2023	Signaling pathways can be classified by their receptor types, and include:1. {{c1::G-protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)}}2. {{c1::Single membrane, enzy…
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::GPCRs}} are the largest receptor class and are utilized in detecting signals related to {{c2::the five senses}}
Published	09/07/2023	GPCRs have {{c1::7 alpha-helices}} spanning the plasma membrane and is coupled to a {{c2::heterotrimeric G protein (consisting of an alpha, beta, and …
Published	09/07/2023	GPCR ligands can bind {{c1::in a pocket in the middle of the helices}} or on the {{c1::extracellular side of the receptor}}
Published	09/07/2023	GPCR signaling follows these steps:1. {{c1::Ligand binds to GPCR}} 2. {{c2:: Conformational change induced in GPCR allowing coupled G protein to bind …
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Adenylyl cyclase}} is a target of alpha-GTP, and when activated, produces {{c2::cyclic AMP (cAMP)}}
Published	09/07/2023	cAMP affects in the cell are mostly carried out through {{c1::cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA)}}, which is activated by cAMP binding and removing {…
Published	09/07/2023	Some alpha G protein subunits interact with membrane-bound {{c1::phospholipase C (PLC)}}, which produces {{c2::inositol 1,4,5-triposphate (IP3) and di…
Published	09/07/2023	IP3 causes the release of {{c1::calcium}} from the ER; {{c1::calcium and diacylglycerol}} work together to activate {{c2::protein kinase C (PKC)}}
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Calcium}} is an important second-messenger in cells, and intracellular concentration is kept very {{c1::low}}
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::Calmodulin}} in a calcium-binding protein that mediates calcium signaling. For example, by regulating {{c1::Ca2+/calodulin-dependent kinases (Ca…
Published	09/07/2023	{{c1::GPCR kinase}} phosphorylates GPCRs to recruit {{c1::arrestin}} binding, rwhich has 2 effects: {{c2::preventing G-protein and receptor from re-en…
Published	09/07/2023	Steps of Signaling Cascade:1. {{c1::Ligands (first messengers) bind receptors}}2. {{c2::Signal is transduced through cell via proteins}}3. {{c3::Secon…
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