Notes in ME2019 - FoM - W1

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Published	02/10/2024	What is a cell?
Published	02/10/2024	What are tissues?
Published	02/10/2024	What are organs?
Published	02/10/2024	GI System overview (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	Cardio system overview (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	All Systems (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	What is the equation of life?
Published	02/10/2024	What is homeostasis?
Published	02/10/2024	What happens if the body fails to maintain homeostasis of the variables?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c2::Homeostasis}} can be defined as maintaining a {{c1::plateau::statistically}} within a relatively normal range depending on the variable.
Published	02/10/2024	Why can normal humans eat donuts and live in hot countries without having serious illnesses?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Negative feedback loop}} is a key mechanism to maintain homeostasis where the condition or stimulus (high/low temp) that triggered the homeostat…
Published	02/10/2024	What is a negative feedback loop?
Published	02/10/2024	Explain a negative feedback loop e.g. a person working outside on a hot, dry day, how is his body temperature and water levels maintained?
Published	02/10/2024	What is a positive feedback loop?
Published	02/10/2024	What are feed-forward control/systems?
Published	02/10/2024	Give an example of feed-forward control (anticipatory responses) e.g. What does the kidney do when a person is working outside on a hot, dry day?
Published	02/10/2024	Explain a positive feedback e.g. in the case of an action potential in a nerve cell.
Published	02/10/2024	Explain a negative feedback loop e.g. homeostatic control of blood glucose
Published	02/10/2024	Explain a positive feedback loop e.g. in a diabetic person; breakdown of homeostatic regulation.
Published	02/10/2024	Water makes up approximately {{c1::60%::percentage}} of our body's weight and is crucial because it affects the concentration of everything else …
Published	02/10/2024	Average daily water balance (gain/loss) in an adult male in a thermoneutral environment is {{c1::2.5L::in litres}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which processes (input - output) are regulated in order to maintain water balance?
Published	02/10/2024	Explain the conflict between water balance regulation and temperature regulation in the sweating mechanism.
Published	02/10/2024	Where is water located in our bodies?
Published	02/10/2024	Distribution of water in an average 21 yr old, 70kg man is {{c1::14L::litres}} in ECF (80% ISF and 20% Plasma) and {{c2::28L::litres}} in ICF.
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Published	02/10/2024	Why are Plasma (3L) and ISF (11L) not completely identical in composition?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Plasma}} is the fluid component of blood, the {{c2::dynamic}} component of the ECF which exchanges nutrients and waste with the ISF.
Published	02/10/2024	Name the 3 things to remember when you measure body fluid volumes
Published	02/10/2024	How do you measure Plasma Volume using the Dilution Principle?
Published	02/10/2024	How do you measure Extracellular Volume (ECF) using the Dilution Principle?
Published	02/10/2024	How do you measure Total Body Water (TBW) using the Dilution Principle?
Published	02/10/2024	How do you measure the volume of compartments where plasma is not a belonging component?
Published	02/10/2024	How do you practice the Dilution principle?
Published	02/10/2024	150mg of sucrose injected into plasma of a 70kg man, [sucrose] in blood sample after distribution = 0.01 mg/ml 10mg were excreted or metabolised.…
Published	02/10/2024	What's the importance of maintaining ECF ion/molecule concentrations?
Published	02/10/2024	What happens if homeostasis does not operate effectively e.g. ECF [K+] increases beyond the normal range? and how is it regulated?
Published	02/10/2024	Why do females and older people have less water in their bodies?
Published	02/10/2024	Why is it important to know the proportions of water/fat content in the body and not just refer to a standard (e.g. 70kg, 21yr male)?
Published	02/10/2024	General information about cells (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	Explain the difference between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells
Published	02/10/2024	What are stem cells?
Published	02/10/2024	What is cell differentiation?
Published	02/10/2024	Differences in gene expression and the local cellular environment causing the daughter cells to develop into different cell types …
Published	02/10/2024	What is Apoptosis?
Published	02/10/2024	What is Necrosis?
Published	02/10/2024	Apoptosis vs Necrosis. What's the difference?
Published	02/10/2024	What is cancer?
Published	02/10/2024	What is the cell membrane?
Published	02/10/2024	a phospholipid bilayer, a selectively permeable barrier, which has proteins embedded in it that act as receptors to detect chemica…
Published	02/10/2024	Why is being small advantageous if you are a cell?
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Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::nucleus}} is an organelle that contains DNA, nucleoprotein and some RNA, enclosed in the nuclear phospholipid bilayer membrane which is clos…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum}} is an organelle that has ribosomes attached on it and modifies ribosomes, which are responsible for synthesizing p…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum}} is an organelle that has no ribosomes attached on it and is mainly associated with lipid and steroid hormone prod…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Golgi Apparatus::}} is an organelle that packages up protein in preparation for transport out of the cell.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Mitrochondria}} is an organelle bound by a phospholipid bilayer with The Outer membrane containing pores The Inner membrane has c…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Mitrochondria}} is an organelle that has its own circular DNA and ribosomes that are similar to bacterial ribosomes, it can also synthesize its …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Enzymes}} are one form of protein packaged by the Golgi Apparatus, they catalyse reactions in cells but are stored until needed.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lysosomes}} are membrane bound vesicles containing enzymes, used in autophagy or digestion of engulfed particles.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Cytoskeleton}} supports and maintains cell shape, holds organelles in position, helps move organelles around the cell, and is comprised of one o…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Cilia}} are hair-like projections that are short, but many, and move with stiff power stroke and flexible recovery stroke, made of microtubules …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Flagella}} are long whip-like protein structures that permit snake-like movement, made of microtubules (supported by cytoskeleton)
Published	02/10/2024	What are the elements needed to make life? (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbon make up {{c1::99%::percentage}} of our bodies. Whats makes them special?
Published	02/10/2024	Two identical elements bonded together are called a {{c1::molecule}}Two or more different elements bonded together are called a {{c1::compound}}
Published	02/10/2024	Why is carbon a very important element?
Published	02/10/2024	Groups of elements (-OH, -COH, -CO) bonded to carbon atoms form {{c1::functional groups}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Chemical polarity}} is a result of unequal distribution of electrons that leads to a difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms, w…
Published	02/10/2024	The function of biomolecules depends on the presence of particular {{c3::functional groups}}, {{c1::polarity}} in the molecule and the {{c2::configura…
Published	02/10/2024	The fixed arrangement of atoms in a molecule is called {{c1::configuration}}
Published	02/10/2024	There can only be two distinct configurations if a biomolecule contains a double bond between carbon atoms, C=C, which is a rigid conformation, and th…
Published	02/10/2024	An example of why configuration is biologically important is {{c1::Rhodopsin::Protein in retina}}
Published	02/10/2024	The precise arrangement of atoms in a molecule is called {{c1::Conformation}}
Published	02/10/2024	Carbon based molecules can be {{c1::symmetrical (achiral)}} or {{c2::asymmetric (chiral)}}
Published	02/10/2024	Asymmetric (chiral) carbon molecules are described as being either {{c1::L- (Laevo)}} or {{c2::D- (Dextro)}}
Published	02/10/2024	5 Chemical reactions of life (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	What does OIL RIG stand for in Redox reactions?
Published	02/10/2024	What's the difference between a Reducing Agent and an Oxidizing Agent?
Published	02/10/2024	The following picture is a biological redox reaction, which molecule is being reduced/oxidized, and which is the reducing agent/oxidizing agent?
Published	02/10/2024	A chemical reaction where electrons are gained or lost which changes the oxidation number of a molecule is called an {{c1::oxidation-reduction (r…
Published	02/10/2024	A chemical reaction where hydrogen atoms are transferred from one molecule to another is called a {{c1::dehydrogenation reaction}}
Published	02/10/2024	Cleavage of glucose in the glycolysis pathway is an example of {{c1::Making/breaking C-C bonds}} reaction
Published	02/10/2024	A rearrangement of the conformation of Glucose 6-phosphate in glycolysis before the sugar is split is an example of {{c1::Internal rearrangement}…
Published	02/10/2024	Transfer of a phosphoryl group (PO32-) from Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) in glycolysis is a {{c1::Group transfer}} …
Published	02/10/2024	A reaction where two smaller molecules combine to form a larger molecules and releasing water in doing so (or other small molecules e.g. methanol) is …
Published	02/10/2024	A reaction which involves adding water to a molecule, and simultaneously breaking down a larger molecule into smaller units is called a {{c1::Hydrolys…
Published	02/10/2024	The sub-units of proteins, polysaccharides and nucleic acids are all joined by {{c1::condensation}} and broken by {{c1::hydrolysis}} reactions.
Published	02/10/2024	Complex carbohydrates e.g. starch/glycogen are called {{c1::polysaccharides}} which are defined as a composition of many individual {{c2::monosacchari…
Published	02/10/2024	Which reaction is a condensation reaction, and which is hydrolysis?
Published	02/10/2024	Glucose polymers, like glycogen and starch, form by {{c1::condensation}} reactions between two or more glucose monomers.
Published	02/10/2024	A large chain of glucose monomers are locked in a {{c1::cyclic form}} except the end monomer, which can remain {{c1::linear}}, the end monomer can the…
Published	02/10/2024	A {{c1::reducing sugar}} is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent because it has a {{c2::free aldehyde}} group.
Published	02/10/2024	Why is D-glucose a reducing sugar?
Published	02/10/2024	Condensation and hydrolysis reactions are important in both {{c1::protein}} and {{c1::carbohydrate}} metabolism.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Peptides}} are short chains of amino acids usually two or more joined by a peptide bond.{{c1::Polypeptides}} is a chain of many amino …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Nucleic acids}} form the core structure of DNA and RNA, they are polymers of nucleotide monomers linked by 3' , 5' - phosphodiester bonds (PO43-…
Published	02/10/2024	A {{c1::nucleotide}} monomer is formed from a {{c2::base}}, a {{c2::sugar molecule}} and a {{c2::phosphate group}}.
Published	02/10/2024	There are 2 kinds of nitrogen containing bases in nucleic acids, {{c1::Pyrimidines::C, U, T}} and {{c2::Purines::A, G}}.
Published	02/10/2024	DNA vs RNA, explain the differences.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::DNA}} is a double stranded nucleic acid, which lacks an oxygen atom in its sugar, and in its base pairings, Adenine always pairs with Thymine.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::RNA}} is a single stranded nucleic acid, which has an oxygen atom in its sugar, and in its base pairings, Adenine always pairs with Uracil.
Published	02/10/2024	Long chains of carbon, with either single or double bonds, and hydrogen atoms form {{c1::Fatty Acids}}
Published	02/10/2024	Within fatty acids, if all the bonds are single it is {{c1::saturated}}.if there is one double bond it is {{c1::mono-unsaturated}}.if there are m…
Published	02/10/2024	The more unsaturated or the more double bonds in a fatty acid, the more {{c1::bendy or fluid}} the fatty acid is.
Published	02/10/2024	There are three classes of lipids:1- {{c1::Triacylglycerides}}2- {{c1::Phospholipids}}3- {{c1::Sterols}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Triglycerides/Triacylglycerides}} are non-polar, storage lipids, which are composed of 3 fatty acid chains linked to glycerol.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Phospholipids}} are polar lipids that form biological cell membranes and they are composed of two fatty acid chains and a phosphate group attach…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Sterols}} are produced in plants, animals and some micro-organisms but the most important one to us is {{c1::Cholesterol}}, which is an essentia…
Published	02/10/2024	Overview of body composition - micro/macromolecules (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	Water is like important you know? why?1- Most abundant substance approx {{c1::70% by mass::% by mass}}2- Helped shape Evolution the most.   …
Published	02/10/2024	Water is a polar molecule. What does that mean?
Published	02/10/2024	Hydrogen bonding in water in its three states of matter:- Water molecules are held in a rigid state by hydrogen bonds - {{c1::Solid water}} - Wat…
Published	02/10/2024	Hydrogen bonding is not unique to water, it can occur between any {{c1::electronegative}} atom (O, N) and an H atom that is {{c1::electropositive}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Hydrogen bonds are {{c2::strongest}} when the 3 atoms involved lie in a {{c1::straight line}} in space.This determines the 3-D structure of proteins, …
Published	02/10/2024	A water soluble/hydrophilic molecule can form hydrogen bonds, because it is {{c1::polar}}.e.g.- Sugars- Alcohols- Aldehydes- Ketones- Compounds with N…
Published	02/10/2024	In protein interactions with water, {{c1::hydrogen bonding}} stabilizes enzyme-substrate interaction.
Published	02/10/2024	Lipid soluble/hydrophobic molecules do not dissolve readily in water, because they are {{c1::non-polar}} and {{c1::uncharged}}.Hydrophobic molecules c…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Amphipathic}} molecules contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts. e.g. PhospholipidsThe phosphate head is hydrophilic and the fatty a…
Published	02/10/2024	Miscelles vs Liposomes. What's the difference?
Published	02/10/2024	Lipids are transported in the blood through a liposome-like structure with a {{c1::hydrophilic/polar}} outer shell made up of phospholipids and protei…
Published	02/10/2024	What's the purpose of the hydrophilic shell in a chylomicron?
Published	02/10/2024	Why do O2 and CO2 have a relatively poor solubility in water and how do they travel through blood plasma if that's the case?
Published	02/10/2024	What does it mean that water has a neutral pH level?
Published	02/10/2024	Acidic and Basic (Alkaline) solutions. What's the difference?
Published	02/10/2024	Acidic solutions have a {{c1::greater}} [H+] and {{c1::lower}} [OH-] Basic (alkaline) solutions have a {{c1::lower}} [H+] and {{c1::higher}} [OH-]
Published	02/10/2024	Strong Acids/Bases vs Weak Acids/Bases. What's the difference?
Published	02/10/2024	Why must the body maintain optimum pH and how does it do that (in cells & blood plasma)?
Published	02/10/2024	An equation used to calculate how the pH of a physiological solution will respond to changes in either the conjugate acid or base is the {{c1::Henders…
Published	02/10/2024	In Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, The more [Buffer] you have, the more pH {{c1::goes up}}. The more [H-buffer] you have, the more pH {{c1::…
Published	02/10/2024	A {{c1::buffer system}} is a solution that resists a change in pH when acids or bases are added to it.
Published	02/10/2024	What are the clinical implications of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?
Published	02/10/2024	What happens to the pH levels if CO2 builds up because of a change in lung function e.g. pulmonary obstruction? and what is the condition called?
Published	02/10/2024	What happens to the pH levels if CO2 goes down because of a change in lung function? and what is the condition called?
Published	02/10/2024	A pyrimidine {{c1::(Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine)::C, U, T}} always pairs with a purine {{c1::(Adenine,&nbsp…
Published	02/10/2024	What happens to Aspirin (weak acid, dissociates to create pH of 3.5 in water) when placed in an environment where the pH is 1.5?
Published	02/10/2024	How does the bicarbonate HCO3- buffer system work in the blood when [H+] increases?
Published	02/10/2024	How does the bicarbonate HCO3- buffer system work in the blood when [H+] decreases?
Published	02/10/2024	The optimal blood pH level for a average, healthy person is approximately {{c1::7.4}}
Published	02/10/2024
Published	02/10/2024	What is the 1st law of thermodynamics?
Published	02/10/2024	Energy can be converted from one form to another but the total energy of the universe remains constant. What is this law called?
Published	02/10/2024	What is the 2nd law of thermodynamics?
Published	02/10/2024	All energy transformations ultimately lead to more disorder in the universe, i.e. increase the entropy. What is this law called?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Entropy}} is a gauge of randomness or chaos within a closed system. As usable energy is irretrievably lost, disorganization, randomness and chao…
Published	02/10/2024	To maintain order, cells have to take energy from the sun or food molecules, and the chemical reactions that generate the cell's order produce {{c1::h…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Gibbs Free Energy}} - is useful, or free energy of a closed system, it can be defined by 3 quantites:- {{c2::Enthalpy}}, H - heat/energy re…
Published	02/10/2024	Free energy change ΔG can be used to define the {{c1::spontaneity}} of a reaction
Published	02/10/2024	Spontaneous reactions can occur if a system:- {{c1::Gives up energy}} e.g. water runs downhill- {{c2::Becomes more random and increases in entrop…
Published	02/10/2024	A spontaneous process must decrease enthalpy (H) and/or increase entropy (S)Therefore spontaneous energy changes will have a {{c1::negative}} value fo…
Published	02/10/2024	Spontaneous reactions only occur if ΔG is {{c1::negative}}, or in other words when the reaction {{c1::releases energy}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Reaction coupling}} is a strategy used by cells, in which an energetically favourable reaction is linked with an energetically unfavourable…
Published	02/10/2024	If ΔG = 0 that means that the reaction is at an {{c1::equilibrium}}, which is incompatible with life.Reactions usually do not reach {{c1::equilib…
Published	02/10/2024	Organisms use a series of reactions to maintain in a state called a {{c1::Dynamic Steady State}}:Where the rate of input/supply equals …
Published	02/10/2024	The chemical process in a living organism by which food is used for tissue growth is called {{c1::metabolism}}
Published	02/10/2024	The energy harvested from catabolic pathways in the form of ATP is used in anabolic pathways to form complex molecules (proteins, DNA, Fatty acid…
Published	02/10/2024	Metabolism uses a chain of chemical reactions, which are catalysed by {{c1::enzymes}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Spontaneous reactions move toward equilibrium but do not reach it, because the body is an {{c1::open}} system where the products are used in subsequen…
Published	02/10/2024	The molecules that are used in link between catabolic and anabolic reaction pathways e.g. ATP, ADP, NADH, NAD+ are called {{c1::Intermediary Metabolit…
Published	02/10/2024	Glucose has a {{c1::high}} potential energy and is used as a food molecule through a series of small chemical reactions accompanied by enzymes to allo…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c2::ATP Hydrolysis}} is a {{c1::catabolic}} reaction used to release free energy, which is collected to do energetically unfavourable reactions…
Published	02/10/2024	The exergonic, catabolic (break-down) pathway 'saves' free energy within a system by forming {{c1::ATP}}.The endergonic, anabolic (build-up) pathway i…
Published	02/10/2024	ATP - ADP interconversions involve the reactions of {{c1::ATP hydrolysis}} and {{c2::ADP condensation}} to ensure the flow of free energy between path…
Published	02/10/2024	ADP Condensation vs ATP Hydrolysis. What's the difference thermodynamically?
Published	02/10/2024	The breaking down of complex molecules into simpler ones is called {{c1::Catabolism}}, which releases energy used to produce ATP.The building up of si…
Published	02/10/2024	An intermediate process in glucose metabolism where the process by which {{c1::Phosphoenolpyruvate}} (PEP) is converted to {{c2::Pyruvate}} relea…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Phosphoryl Transfers}} is the process by which a phosphoryl group is transfered to ADP to convert it to ATP for storage of potential energy…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::ATP-ADP Interconversions}} are the driving force behind muscle contractions and membrane potentials, which can store or release energy in t…
Published	02/10/2024	Cellular Redox Reactions use {{c1::Metabolic Intermediaries}} as electron carrier molecules such as NAD+ and FAD+, they act as coenzymes in metab…
Published	02/10/2024	Name the four types of tissues1. {{c1::Connective}} tissue2- {{c1::Epithelial}} tissue3- {{c1::Nervous}} tissue4- {{c1::Muscle}} tissue
Published	02/10/2024	What are the mechanisms used to maintain Homeostasis?1- {{c1::Negative}} feedback loop2- {{c1::Feedforward}} loop3- {{c1::Positive}} feedback loop
Published	02/10/2024	1 pH unit represents a {{c1::ten}}-fold increase or decrease in [H+]
Published	02/10/2024	Natural Killer Cells are lymphocytes which are part of the {{c1::innate}} immune system.
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