Notes in AnQueen 👑::B&B

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Published	09/24/2024	The basement membrane is composed of the {{c1::basal lamina}}, which contains {{c2::laminin proteins}} and {{c2::type IV collagen}}, and the {{c1::ret…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Tight junctions}}, also called {{c1::occluding junctions}} or {{c1::zonula occludens}}, are found {{c2::near the apical membrane}} and prevent {…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Adherens junctions}}, also called {{c1::belt desmosomes}} or {{c1::zonula adherens}}, are found {{c2::below tight junctions}} and form {{c2::bel…
Published	10/16/2024	{{c2::Desmosomes}}, also called {{c1::spot desmosomes}} or {{c1::macula adherens}}, are found {{c2::below adherens junctions}} and form {{c2::spots of…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Hemidesmosomes}} are found {{c2::near the basal membrane}} and link {{c2::epithelial cells to the basement membrane}}. Their key prote…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Gap junctions}} are {{c2::channels}} that allow {{c2::small molecules}} to pass from cell to cell. Their key proteins are {{c2::connexins}}…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Pemphigus vulgaris}} is a skin disorder which results from autoantibodies to {{c1::desmosomes}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Bullous pemphigoid}} is a skin disorder which results from autoantibodies to {{c1::hemidesmosomes}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.1498:top=.1358:width=.834:height=.0741:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.1494:top=.2295:width=.834:height=.0742:…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Mesenchymal cells}} have large {{c1::eu::eu/hetero}}chromatic nuclei which indicate {{c1::high::low/high}} levels of synthetic activity.
Published	09/24/2024	While mesenchyme and mucoid tissue can resemble one another, mucoid tissue contains {{c1::fibroblasts}} and {{c1::collagen}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.2086:top=.2285:width=.766:height=.1075:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.2086:top=.3737:width=.766:height=.1075:…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Reticular tissue}} contains type {{c2::III}} collagen.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.152:top=.4266:width=.2265:height=.081:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0000:top=.6392:width=.152:height=.0861:o…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Fibroblasts}} are the resident cells of {{c2::(general) connective}} tissue.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Loose connective / areolar}} tissue forms {{c2::surgical planes / mesentery}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Dense irregular connective}} tissue is mechanically resistant to {{c2::variable}} load orientations. Therefore, it composes {{c1::dermis}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Dense regular connective}} tissue is mechanically resistant to {{c2::predictable}} load orientations. Therefore, it composes {{c1::tendons …
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::White}} adipose tissue can be distinguished from {{c2::brown}} adipose tissue by its "{{c1::signet ring}}" appearance and lack of "{{c1::foamy}}…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Reticular tissue}} composes the {{c1::stroma}} of {{c1::lymphoid organs}}.
Published	09/24/2024	Adipocyte features unique to each type:White: {{c1::endocrine signaling (secretes leptin which acts on hypothalamic targets to regulate appetite and e…
Published	09/24/2024	Elastic fiber synthesis:{{c1::RER}} synthesizes {{c1::tropoelastin (containing desmosine)}}, {{c1::fibulin 1}}, and {{c1::fibrillins 1 and 2}}.{{c1::G…
Published	09/24/2024	Defects in {{c1::fibrillin 1 synthesis}} results in {{c2::Marfan syndrome}}.
Published	09/24/2024	Barrier functions of integument:epidermis: protects against {{c1::UV, pathogens, harmful chemicals, and mechanical trauma::4}}; prevents {{c1::water::…
Published	09/24/2024	epidermis:{{c1::keratinized stratified squamous epithelial::epithelial classification}} cellsderived from {{c1::ectoderm::embryonic layer}}{{c1::avasc…
Published	09/24/2024	dermis:{{c1::dense irregular connective}} tissue (also some {{c1::loose connective tissue}})derived from {{c1::mesoderm or ectomesenchyme}}{{c1::vascu…
Published	09/24/2024	hypodermis:{{c1::loose connective}} and {{c1::adipose}} tissue (also some {{c1::dense irregular}} in {{c1::membranous}} layer)derived from {{c1::mesod…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Thick}} skin is found on {{c1::volar surfaces (palms of the hands and soles of the feet)}}. The epidermis is {{c2::0.4-1.4}} mm thick,…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Thin}} skin is found on {{c1::most of the body (excluding volar surfaces)}}. The epidermis is {{c2::0.075-0.15}} mm thick, can have {{…
Published	09/24/2024	Cell composition of the {{c3::epidermis}}:{{c1::keratinocytes}}: {{c2::80}}%{{c1::melanocytes}}: {{c2::10}}%{{c1::dendritic (Langerhans) cells}}:…
Published	09/24/2024	Keratinocytes synthesize:{{c2::keratin}}: {{c1::for structural support}}{{c2::lamellar granules}}: {{c1::to contribute to the water-resistant lipid ba…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Keratinocytes::(Cells in skin)}} are abundant in {{c1::desmosomal}} junctions.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Keratinocytes}} can sequester {{c1::melanin}} at the {{c1::apical::basal/apical}} membranes of {{c1::basal::basal/apical}} cells for protec…
Published	09/24/2024	Keratins are members of the {{c1::intermediate filament}} protein family that are composed of {{c1::hetero::hetero/homo}}dimers.
Published	09/24/2024	Type {{c2::I}} keratins (named {{c2::K9-20}} and {{c2::K31-38}}) are {{c1::acidic::acidic/basic and neutral}} and {{c1::softer::harder/softer}} k…
Published	09/24/2024	Type {{c2::II}} keratins (named {{c2::K1-8}} and {{c2::K71-86}}) are {{c1::basic and neutral::acidic/basic and neutral}} and {{c1::harder::harder…
Published	09/24/2024	Cells produced in the stratum {{c1::basale}} proliferate up to the stratum {{c1::corneum}} in approximately {{c1::90 days}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.5006:top=.7917:width=.474:height=.1349:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.5006:top=.1957:width=.4716:height=.0934…
Published	09/24/2024	The profile (heterodimer composition) of keratin is different in every layer of the epidermis.{{c1::True::(T/F)}}Explanation: {{c1::Keratinocytes diff…
Published	09/24/2024	The profile (heterodimer composition) of keratin in the stratum spinosum of {{c1::thick}} skin is {{c2::K1-K9}}.
Published	09/24/2024	The profile (heterodimer composition) of keratin in the stratum spinosum of {{c1::thin}} skin is {{c2::K1-K10}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Melanocytes}} are abundant in {{c1::hemidesmosomal}} junctions.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Keratinocytes::(Cells in skin)}} are derived from {{c2::ectoderm}} while {{c1::melanocytes::(cells in skin)}} are derived from {{c2::neural cres…
Published	09/24/2024	Melanocytes release {{c2::melanosomes (vesicles containing melanin)}} via {{c1::cytocrine}} secretion.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Melanin}} shares precursors (e.g., {{c1::tyrosine}}) and synthesis pathways with {{c1::catacholamine neurotransmitters}} (e.g., {{c1::dopam…
Published	09/24/2024	Melanin acts as a {{c1::chelator}} and provides a route for excretion of {{c1::heavy metals}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Dendritic (Langerhans) cells}} are {{c2::macrophages::cell type}} derived from {{c2::monocytes::cell type}}. They monitor the epidermis for…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Tactile epithelial cells (Merkel discs)}} are {{c1::ectoderm}}-derived and located in the {{c1::stratum basale}}. They are {{c1::slow::fast/slow…
Published	09/24/2024	Stratum {{c2::basale}} contains:{{c1::epidermal stem cells}} ({{c1::slow::fast/slow}} division) which become {{c1::transit amplifying cells}} ({{c1::f…
Published	09/24/2024	Stratum {{c2::spinosum}} contains:keratinocytes ({{c1::K1-K9 or K1-K10 [thick vs thin skin]}} profile)
Published	09/24/2024	Stratum {{c2::granulosum}} contains:{{c1::terminally}} differentiating keratinocytes ({{c1::K2-K10}} profile){{c1::lamellar granules::k…
Published	09/24/2024	Stratum {{c2::lucidum}} contains:degraded {{c1::nuclei::organelle}}dispersed {{c1::keratohyaline::keratinocyte feature}} attached to {{c1::plasma…
Published	09/24/2024	Stratum {{c2::corneum}} contains:{{c1::squames}} (dead keratinocytes coated in lipids derived from {{c1::lamellar granules}}) stabilized by {{c1:…
Published	09/24/2024	Layers of the dermis: {{c2::papillary}} layer: {{c1::loose connective tissue}}{{c2::reticular}} layer: {{c1::dense irregular connective…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Papillary}} dermis contains:{{c1::loose}} connective tissue: type I and {{c1::II}} collagen{{c1::elastic fibers::matrix…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Reticular}} dermis contains:{{c1::dense irregular}} connective tissue: type I and {{c1::III}} collagen{{c1::elastic fibers::…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Hypodermis}} contains:fatty layer: {{c1::loose connective tissue}} + {{c1::adipose tissue}}membranous layer: {{c1::loose connective tissue}…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Eccrine}} glands:appearance: {{c1::coiled tubular::gland shape}} {{c1::(two-layered) cuboidal epithelium::cell shape and type}} with {{c1::small…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Apocrine}} glands:appearance: {{c1::coiled tubular::gland shape}} {{c1::cuboidal epithelium::cell shape and type}} with {{c1::large::size}}&nbsp…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Sebaceous}} glands:appearance: {{c1::acinar::gland shape}}location in skin: {{c1::near hair follicles in dermis}}location in body: {{c1::concent…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.0112:top=.781:width=.1694:height=.1945:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.1935:top=.781:width=.148:height=.1945:o…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Motor neurons::Neuron type}}, {{c1::interneurons::neuron type}}, and {{c1::most neurons of the peripheral nervous system::neuron type}} are {{c2…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Neurons associated with special senses::Neuron type}} are {{c2::bipolar::polarity}} neurons. Examples of neural tissues containing {{c2::bipolar…
Published	09/24/2024	Neurons that have a single extension that bifurcates into a {{c1::long}} peripheral process and {{c1::short}} central process are {{c2::(pseudo)unipol…
Published	09/24/2024	Neurons that have {{c1::many}} dendrites and {{c1::no}} axons are {{c2::anaxonic::polarity}} neurons. Their purpose is to {{c1::regulate ele…
Published	09/24/2024	locations of __________ in the spinal cord:gray matter / {{c1::cell bodies (somata)}}: {{c1::internal}}white matter / {{c1::axons}}: {{c1::external}}(…
Published	09/24/2024	neural cytoskeleton:{{c2::microtubules}}: {{c1::large::size}}, {{c1::longitudinal "train tracks" for transport::function}}, {{c1::tau proteins of micr…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Kinesin}} performs {{c2::anterograde}} transport while {{c1::dynein}} performs {{c2::retrograde}} transport. Both {{c2::require::requi…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Retrograde::Direction}} transport is implicated in {{c2::viruses::clinical correlation}} such as {{c2::rabies::example}} and {{c2::tetanus::exam…
Published	09/24/2024	glial cells:{{c1::oligodendrocytes}}: {{c2::CNS::CNS/PNS}}, {{c2::myelin production::function}}, implicated in {{c2::multiple sclerosis::clinical corr…
Published	09/24/2024	primary types of astrocytes:{{c2::fibrous (white matter)}}: {{c1::long, thin processes with few branches::appearance}}{{c2::protoplasmic (gray matter)…
Published	09/24/2024	Astrocytic processes and their end-feet surround {{c2::arteries}}, {{c2::arterioles}}, and {{c2::capillaries}}, forming {{c1::neurovascular units (NVU…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Astrocytes}} help regulate activity of {{c2::arterial smooth muscle cells}} through {{c1::cross-talk of ions, molecules, and neurotransmitt…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Microglia::Glial cell type}} are lymphatic cells that perform {{c2::phagocytic functions}} and produce {{c2::cytokines}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Satellite (glial) cells}} act similarly to {{c2::astrocytes}} by {{c2::nourishing neurons}} and {{c2::regulating their microenvironments}}.&nbsp…
Published	09/24/2024	connective tissue coverings of peripheral nerves:{{c1::epineurium}}: wrapped around {{c2::entire nerve}}, type {{c2::I}} collagen and fibroblasts{{c1:…
Published	09/24/2024	Inflammation of/in the {{c1::endoneurium::connective tissue layer surrounding neurons}} can lead to {{c1::demyelination}} and cause {{c1::Guillain-Bar…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Hematoxylin}} is a {{c1::blue/purple::color}} dye that binds to {{c1::negatively}}-charged structures (e.g., {{c1::DNA, RNA, ribosomes}}). {{c2:…
Published	09/24/2024	plasma contents:{{c2::water}}{{c2::albumin}}: smallest and most abundant plasma protein, synthesized by {{c1::liver}}, maintains {{c1::osmotic pressur…
Published	09/24/2024	buffy coat contents:{{c1::leukocytes: granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes)}}{{c1::thrombocyte…
Published	09/24/2024	In hematopoesis, {{c1::multipotent}} stem cells differentiate into {{c2::myeloid}} stem cells and {{c2::lymphoid}} stem cells.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Myeloid}} stem cells ultimately differentiate into {{c2::erythrocytes}}, {{c2::granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)}}, {{c2::…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Lymphoid}} stem cells ultimately differentiate into {{c2::B-cells}}, {{c2::T-cells}}, and {{c2::natural killer (NK) cells}}.
Published	09/24/2024	Once hematopoietic cells have differentiated and matured, they move from the {{c1::stroma}} to the {{c1::sinusoid}} and begin {{c1::circulating throug…
Published	09/24/2024	stages of erythropoiesis:myeloid stem cell{{c1::erythroid colony forming unit (CFU)}}{{c1::proerythroblast}}{{c1::basophilic erythroblast}}{{c1::polyc…
Published	09/24/2024	During erythropoiesis, the nucleus is ejected during the transition from {{c1::orthochromatic erythroblast}} to {{c1::reticulocyte}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Erythropoietin}} stimulates the early stages of {{c2::erythroid colony forming unit (CFU)::precursor}} to {{c2::proliferate}} and {{c2::differen…
Published	09/24/2024	sites of erythropoiesis by age:{{c1::yolk sac}}: {{c2::3-8 weeks}}{{c1::liver}}: {{c2::6-30 weeks}}{{c1::spleen}}: {{c2::10-28 weeks}}{{c1::bone marro…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Skeletal malformations}} can result from {{c2::hypoxia}} due to death of {{c1::chondrocytes}} in {{c1::epiphyseal growth plates}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Thalassemia::Blood disorder}} can be treated by {{c2::blood transfusion}} and {{c2::bone marrow transplant}}.
Published	09/24/2024	The elasticity of erythrocytes is provided by its cytoskeletal proteins: {{c1::actin}}, {{c1::glycophorin}}, and {{c1::spectrin}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Hereditary spherocytosis}} causes erythroblasts to {{c2::lose their biconcave shape and become spherical}}. It results from an {{c1::autosomal d…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Hereditary spherocytosis::Blood disorder}} presents with symptoms of {{c1::anemia}}, {{c1::jaundice}}, and {{c1::splenomegaly}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Splenomegaly}} occurs in hereditary spherocytosis due to {{c1::a buildup of spherocytes that accumulate faster than can be broken down}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Anemia}} occurs in hereditary spherocytosis due to {{c1::increase in RBC production}} in response to {{c1::decrease in carbon dioxide and o…
Published	09/24/2024	Treatments for hereditary spherocytosis include {{c1::short-term blood transfusion}} and {{c1::partial splenectomy to remove spherocyte blockages in s…
Published	09/24/2024	HbA1C forms by gradual attachment of {{c1::ambient blood glucose}} to {{c1::hemoglobin}}. This allows for estimation of {{c2::average blood gluco…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Erythroblastosis fetalis}} occurs during a Rh{{c2::-::+/-}} mother's pregnancy with an Rh{{c2::+::+/-}} fetus that follows the pr…
Published	09/24/2024	A fetus with {{c1::erythroblastosis fetalis}} may develop symptoms of {{c2::splenomegaly}}, {{c2::jaundice}}, {{c2::edema}}, and {{c2::heart failure}}…
Published	09/24/2024	stages of thrombopoiesis:myeloid stem cell{{c1::megakaryocyte colony forming unit (CFU)}}{{c1::megakaryoblast}}{{c1::megakaryocyte}}platelets
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Megakaryocytes}} form {{c1::platelets}} by deploying their {{c2::demarcation channels}} into the sinusoid and fragmenting them into {{c1::p…
Published	09/24/2024	The destruction of megakaryocytes that have finished shedding platelets occurs by {{c1::initiating apoptosis}}, {{c1::entering the bloodstream}}, and …
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Dendritic cells}} act as homeostatic sensors in bone marrow by detecting {{c2::apoptotic megakaryocytes}} and stimulating {{c2::proliferati…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Thrombopoietin}} stimulates the {{c2::megakaryocyte colony forming unit (CFU)}} to {{c2::proliferate}} and {{c2::differentiate into platelets}}.
Published	09/24/2024	The {{c1::adhering}} function of a thrombocyte comes from its {{c2::glycocalyx}}.
Published	09/24/2024	parts of a thrombocyte:{{c1::granulomere}}: {{c2::contains 4 types of granules (alpha, delta, peroxisomes, lysosomes), Golgi complex, mitochondria, RE…
Published	09/24/2024	All leukocytes are {{c1::larger than RBCs::size}}, have {{c1::granules (blue-stained) that help digest bacteria::feature}}, and can {{c1::leave the bl…
Published	09/24/2024	steps of diapedesis / transendothelial migration:Tissue damage causes {{c1::macrophages}} to release {{c1::cytokines}} which stimulate {{c1::endotheli…
Published	09/24/2024	stages of granulopoiesis:myeloid stem cell{{c1::granulocyte-macrophage/eosinophil/basophil colony forming unit (CFU)}}{{c1::neutrophilic/eosinophilic/…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Primary}} granules (present in {{c2::all leukocytes}}) form during the {{c2::promyelocyte}} phase. {{c1::Specific}} granules (present …
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::neutrophils}}:nucleus: {{c1::3-5}}-lobedgranules: stain {{c1::pale (neutral)}}unique functions: perform {{c1::phagocytosis and oxidative burst}}…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::eosinophils}}:nucleus: {{c1::2}}-lobedgranules: stain {{c1::red}}, appear {{c1::dark with darker stripe (internum) through middle}} under EMuniq…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::basophils}}:nucleus: {{c1::s-shaped}} but obscured by granulesgranules: stain {{c1::dark blue-purple}}, contain {{c1::heparin}} and {{c1::histam…
Published	09/24/2024	stages of monocytopoiesis:myeloid stem cell{{c1::granulocyte-macrophage colony forming unit (CFU)}}{{c1::monoblast}}{{c1::promonocyte}}monocyte{{c1::m…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::monocytes}}:nucleus: {{c1::kidney-shaped}}cytoplasm: small amount, stains {{c1::pale}}unique functions: travel to sites of inflammation to {{c1:…
Published	09/24/2024	stages of lymphopoiesis:lymphoid stem cell{{c1::lymphoblast}}lymphocyte: {{c1::B-cells, T-cells, or NK-cells}}NOTE: Lymphocytes are immunoincompetent …
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::lymphocytes}}:{{c2::B}}-lymphocytes: mature in {{c1::bone marrow}}, contain {{c1::surface markers (antibodies)}}, and differentiate into {{c1::a…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.2063:top=.5891:width=.089:height=.0202:oi=1}}{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.1759:top=.6116:width=.0478:height=.0202…
Published	09/24/2024	stimulus intensity coding:low intensity stimuli cause {{c1::low}} frequency firing of action potentialshigh intensity stimuli cause {{c1::high}} frequ…
Published	09/24/2024	synaptic transmission at a chemical synapse:AP arrives at synaptic terminal.{{c1::Voltage-gated::channel type}} {{c1::Ca2+::ion}} channels open a…
Published	09/24/2024	action potential conduction:A {{c1::de::de/re/hyper}}polarizing stimulus spreads along axon (from {{c1::hillock::location}} to {{c1::terminals::locati…
Published	09/24/2024	action potential stages:resting state: {{c1::Na+::ion}} and {{c1::K+::ion}} maintain resting state via ion channels and {{c1::Na+/K+}} …
Published	09/24/2024	Electrical synapses differ from chemical synapses by their use of {{c1::gap junctions}} to allow a {{c1::continuous flow of ions}}, making this k…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Ligand}}-gated ion channels are {{c1::less::more/less}} selective than {{c2::voltage}}-gated ion channels. This is because {{c2::ligand}}-gated …
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Voltage-gated::Channel type}} {{c1::Na+::ion}} channels have an inactivation state that occurs when {{c1::voltage-gated::channel type}} {{c…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Tetrodotoxin (from puffer fish)}} binds to {{c1::voltage-gated::channel type}} {{c1::Na+::ion}} channels in the {{c1::closed::open/clo…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Lidocaine}} binds to {{c1::voltage-gated::channel type}} {{c1::Na+::ion}} channels in the {{c1::inactivated::open/closed/inactivated}} stat…
Published	09/24/2024	T/F: If an action potential is strong enough, it can cause the neuron to fire again during the refractory period.{{c1::True for the relative refractor…
Published	09/24/2024	small-molecule neurotransmitters:{{c1::acetylcholine (ACh)}}amino acids: {{c1::Glu, Asp, Gly, GABA::4}}purines: {{c1::ATP::1}}biogenic amines: {{c1::d…
Published	09/24/2024	neurotransmitters by postsynaptic effects:excitatory: {{c1::acetylcholine (ACh), Glu, ATP, catecholamines (epinephrine, NE, DA), histamine::7}}in…
Published	09/24/2024	membrane receptors:ionotropic: {{c1::ion channels}}metabotropic: {{c1::GPCRs}}iGluR: {{c1::ionotropic glutamate receptors}}mGluRs: {{c1::metabotropic …
Published	09/24/2024	iGluRs:{{c1::NMDAR}}, activated by {{c1::NMDA}}{{c1::AMPAR}}, activated by {{c1::AMPA}}{{c1::kainate}}, activated by {{c1::kainate}}NOTE: {{c1::Glutam…
Published	09/24/2024	AMPA receptors (AMPAR):allow more {{c1::Na+::ion}} influx than {{c1::K+::ion}} effluxresults in {{c1::excitatory}} postsynaptic potential ({…
Published	09/24/2024	NDMAR receptors (NDMAR):channel is blocked by {{c1::Mg2+::ion}} at restactivated by {{c1::Glu::ligand}} and {{c1::depolarization::voltage change}}when…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Phencyclidine (PCP / "angel dust")::Drug}} blocks {{c1::NMDAR}}, causing {{c1::euphoria}} followed by {{c1::ataxia}}, {{c1::sweating}}, {{c1::se…
Published	09/24/2024	GABAa receptors (GABAaR):{{c1::GABA or glycine::amino acid ligand}} receptorallows influx of {{c1::Cl-::ion}}when activated, result in {{c1::inhibitor…
Published	09/24/2024	In the knee-jerk reflex:sensory neuron: {{c1::EPSP::EPSP/IPSP}}motor neuron of extensor muscle: {{c1::EPSP::EPSP/IPSP}}interneuron: {{c1::EPSP::EPSP/I…
Published	09/24/2024	the only 8 ionotropic transmitter receptors:{{c1::nACh}}{{c1::AMPA = GluA}}{{c1::NMDA = GluN}}{{c1::kainate = GluK}}{{c1::GABA = GABAa or GABAc}}{{c1:…
Published	09/24/2024	8 metabotropic transmitter receptors:{{c1::muscarinic}}{{c1::glutamate = mGlu}}{{c1::GABA = GABAB}}{{c1::dopamine}}{{c1::adrenergic}}{{c1::histamine}}…
Published	09/24/2024	temporal summation: the sum of multiple action potentials that occur close together in {{c1::time}}spatial summation: the sum of multiple action poten…
Published	09/24/2024	The {{c1::SNARE complex}} is a complex of proteins that aid in the fusion of the presynaptic {{c2::vesicle}} membrane to the presynaptic {{c…
Published	09/24/2024	disorders affecting the presynaptic terminal:{{c2::Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS)}}: {{c1::attacks presynaptic Ca2+ channels}}{{c2::botulinu…
Published	09/24/2024	Excitotoxicity occurs as a result of excessive {{c1::Ca2+::ion}} influx and causes {{c1::cell death}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Glutamate}} toxicity is present in most major neurogenetive and neurologic diseases.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Innate}} immunity is {{c1::non-specific::specificity}}, {{c1::does not generate::generates/does not generate}} memory, and occurs {{c1::imm…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Adaptive}} immunity is {{c1::specific::specificity}}, {{c1::generates::generates/does not generate}} memory, and occurs {{c1::4 days t…
Published	09/24/2024	innate immune system: sites: {{c1::skin and mucous membranes::2}}mechanisms: {{c1::phagocytosis and inflammation::2}}
Published	09/24/2024	adaptive immune system:{{c2::humoral/antibody}}-mediated: {{c1::B-cells}}{{c2::cell}}-mediated: {{c1::T-cells}}
Published	09/24/2024	Active immunity is when {{c1::the body mounts an immune response to create antibodies itself}}. Passive immunity is when {{c1::antibodies are transfer…
Published	09/24/2024	The hallmark of the innate immune system is that it recognizes {{c1::structures that are not present on normal host cells}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Natural killer (NK) cells}} are activated when a target cell lacks {{c1::MHC I}}. When activated, they release {{c1::perforins}} and {…
Published	09/24/2024	phagocytes involved in innate immunity:neutrophils: {{c1::most abundant, first responders, perform oxidative burst, generate pus}}monocytes: {{c1::lar…
Published	09/24/2024	other cells (non-phagocytes) involved in innate immunity:{{c2::innate lymphoid cells}}: {{c1::produce cytokines like T-cells but lack T-cell antigen r…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Eosinophils}}, {{c2::basophils}}, and {{c2::mast cells}} are activated by Ig{{c1::E}} antibodies.
Published	09/24/2024	In addition to basophils, {{c2::mast cells}} are involved in {{c1::allergic inflammation}} responses.
Published	09/24/2024	The {{c1::complement system}} is a system of {{c1::circulating}} and {{c1::membrane associated}} proteins that circulate in an {{c1::inactive::active/…
Published	09/24/2024	functions of the complement system:{{c2::cell lysis}}: {{c1::result of a cascade, forms polymeric protein complex that inserts into microbial membrane…
Published	09/24/2024	activation of the complement system:classical pathway: {{c1::requires antibodies bound to virus-infected cell, fungi, or parasites}}; activates {{c1::…
Published	09/24/2024	The innate immune system interfaces with the adaptive immune system by generating molecules that provide signals and present antigens v…
Published	09/24/2024	Immune cells can differentiate between self (i.e., native cells) from non-self cells (i.e., foreign cells) by {{c1::major histocompatibility complex (…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::MHC I}} are expressed on the surface of {{c1::all nucleated cells}}. The proteins they present are {{c1::cytosolic}} proteins that are processed…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::MHC II}} are expressed on the surface of {{c1::antigen presenting cells (APCs) only}}. The proteins they present are {{c1::extracellular endocyt…
Published	09/24/2024	Normal blood platelet count is {{c1::150K-450K}}/μL.
Published	09/24/2024	differences between B-cells and T-cells:B-cells make {{c1::immunoglobulins}}, T-cells are {{c1::cell-mediated (activated by other cells)}}B-cells have…
Published	09/24/2024	lymphocyte subtypes:B-cells: {{c1::transitional/naive, plasma, memory}}T-cells: {{c1::helper (CD4+), cytotoxic (CD8+), regulatory, memory}}
Published	09/24/2024	Antibodies are made by {{c1::plasma cells (B-cells)}}, have {{c1::2 heavy}} and {{c1::2 light}} chains, and bind antigens in their {{c1::variable}} re…
Published	09/24/2024	Antibodies can be {{c1::secreted}} or {{c1::membrane}}-bound and they tag foreign agents for {{c1::phagocytosis}} or {{c1::destruction}}.
Published	09/24/2024	classes of antibodies:{{c1::IgE}}: {{c2::monomer::monomer or polymer?}}, {{c2::binds allergens and parasites::main function(s)}}, {{c2::located on mas…
Published	09/24/2024	An {{c1::antigen}} is a molecule that can be recognized by cells of the adaptive immune system to elicit an immune response.
Published	09/24/2024	An {{c1::epitope}} is a small molecular domain of an {{c2::antigen}} that is recognized by an {{c2::antibody}}.
Published	09/24/2024	An {{c1::antibody}} is a glycoprotein in the {{c2::immunoglobulin}} family that is secreted by {{c2::plasma cells}}.
Published	09/24/2024	parts of an antibody:{{c1::heavy chain}} = {{c2::Fc}} = {{c2::cell receptor}}-binding portion = {{c2::constant::constant/variable}}{{c1::light ch…
Published	09/24/2024	Ig{{c1::M (monomers)}} and Ig{{c1::D}} antibodies are present on the surface of {{c2::B-lymphocytes}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Virus}}-infected cells are detected by antigen presentation via MHC {{c2::I::I or II?}}.
Published	09/24/2024	MHC {{c1::I::I or II?}} receptors present short fragments of {{c2::all}} peptides that are {{c2::actively being synthesized by the cell}} to…
Published	09/24/2024	MHC {{c1::II::I or II?}} receptors present {{c2::foreign}} peptides that are {{c2::endocytosed and partially digested}} to {{c2::CD4+ / help…
Published	09/24/2024	Examples of {{c2::antigen-presenting cells (APCs)}} include {{c1::macrophages}}, {{c1::dendritic cells}}, and {{c1::B-cells}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::CD4+ / Helper T}}-lymphocytes interact with APCs and help activate {{c1::CD8+ / cytotoxic T}}-lymphocytes and {{c1::B}}-lymphocytes.
Published	09/24/2024	The major limitation of {{c1::T}}-lymphocytes is that {{c2::they can only bind antigens if they are displayed on MHC molecules}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Regulatory T}}-lymphocytes can {{c1::suppress}} an immune response to foreign and self-antigen by influencing other cells in the …
Published	09/24/2024	activation of B-lymphocytes:{{c1::B-cell receptors (BCR) bind to an antigen.}}{{c2::BCR-antigen complex undergoes endocytosis.}}{{c3::Antigen is degra…
Published	09/24/2024	Large aggregates of B-cells, called {{c1::lymphoid nodules / follicles}}, are found in {{c2::secondary lymphoid organs}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Lymphatic vessels}} transport {{c2::interstitial fluid (lymph)}} to blood (veins).
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::Bone marrow and the thymus}} are primary lymphoid organs. {{c1::The lymph nodes, spleen, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)}} are&nbs…
Published	09/24/2024	{{c2::Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)}} contains {{c1::lymphoid nodules (B-cell aggregates)}}, {{c1::IgA-secreting plasma cells}}, and {{c1::…
Published	09/24/2024	The thymus undergoes {{c2::age-related thymic involution}}, reducing the {{c1::size of the thymus}} and {{c1::its production of naive T-cells}}.
Published	09/24/2024	The decline of immune function in the elderly may be related to {{c1::age-related thymic involution}}.
Published	09/24/2024	The {{c1::cortex}} of a thymus lobule contains a high number of {{c2::immature}} T-lymphocytes while the {{c1::medulla}} contains a hig…
Published	09/24/2024	Unlike other lymphoid organs, the thymus lacks {{c1::reticular connective tissue::tissue type}} and instead has {{c1::thymic epithelial cells::cell ty…
Published	09/24/2024	In the thymus, {{c1::Hassall's corpuscles}} are large aggregates of {{c2::thymic epithelial cells (TECs)}} in the medulla.
Published	09/24/2024	Hassall's corpuscles recruit {{c1::dendritic cells that display self-antigens}} and are the site of {{c1::negative}} selection in T-cell mat…
Published	09/24/2024	Thymus lobules are surrounded by {{c1::vascularized connective tissue capsules}}.
Published	09/24/2024	{{c1::image-occlusion:rect:left=.5208:top=.3115:width=.4673:height=.2781:oi=1}}{{c2::image-occlusion:rect:left=.497:top=.6537:width=.4881:height=.2941…
Published	09/24/2024	T-cell education:T-lymphocyte colony forming units (CFU) leave bone marrow, circulate to the thymus, and enter the medulla via post-capillary venules,…
Published	09/24/2024	Lymph nodes function as in-line filters of lymph by providing enclosed environments for {{c1::antigen presentation and development of plasma cells}} a…
Published	09/24/2024	Lymph nodes contain {{c1::reticular fibers (type III collagen)::tissue}} and a dynamic population of {{c1::B-cells, T-cells, plasma cells, dendri…
Published	09/24/2024	The lymphoid nodules in the cortex of lymph nodes contain {{c1::B-cells}} that are proliferating into {{c1::plasma cells}}.
Published	09/24/2024	The medulla of lymph nodes contain two regions: {{c1::medullary cords of lymphoid tissue}} and {{c1::medullary sinuses for lymph fluid to dr…
Published	09/24/2024	The paracortex of lymph nodes contains {{c1::high endothelial venules (HEVs)::structure}} through which {{c1::lymphocytes::cell type}} enter.
Published	09/24/2024	In lymph nodes, the afferent lymphatic vessels drain into the {{c1::cortical subcapsular sinuses (SS)}}. Then lymph travels through {{c1::trabecular s…
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