Notes in Intro to Electronics

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Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Electric current}} is the total charge that passes through a cross-sectional area per unit time.
Published	10/15/2024	The unit of electric current is the {{c1::ampere (A)}}, which is equivalent to 1 {{c2::coulomb}} per second.
Published	10/15/2024	The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is defined by {{c1::Ohm's law}}, which is expressed as {{c2::\( V = I \cdot R \).}}
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Resistors}} are passive electrical components that implement electrical resistance as a circuit element.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Voltage}} is the electromotive force responsible for moving electrons through a conductor, measured in {{c2::volts (V)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	Power in a circuit is given by the equation {{c1::\( P = V \cdot I \)}}, where \( P \) is power, \( V \) is voltage, and \( I \) is current.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Resistance}} is the opposition to the flow of current in a conductor, measured in {{c2::ohms (Ω).}}
Published	10/15/2024	The resistivity \( \rho \) of a material is defined by the formula {{c1::\( \rho = \frac{R \cdot A}{L} \)}}, where \( R \) is resistance, \( A \) is c…
Published	10/15/2024	In digital electronics, circuits work with only two voltage states: {{c1::high}} (e.g., 5V) and {{c2::low}} (e.g., 0V).
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Conductivity}}, symbolized by \( \sigma \), is the mathematical inverse of resistivity and measures how "good" a material is at conducting curre…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)}} states that the sum of all voltages around a closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)}} states that the sum of currents entering a node must equal the sum of currents leaving the node.
Published	10/15/2024	In the {{c1::Node Voltage Method (NVM)}}, the voltage at each node is treated as an independent variable, and Ohm’s law is applied to adjacent nodes.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::Mesh Current Method (MCM)}} uses mesh currents as independent variables, and {{c2::KVL}} is applied to each mesh.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::superposition theorem}} states that the current in any branch of a linear circuit is the sum of the currents produced by each independent so…
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::Wheatstone bridge}} is a circuit with 4 resistors that is used to determine an unknown resistance.
Published	10/15/2024	In a {{c1::voltage divider}}, the total voltage is divided between two series resistors, according to the ratio of their resistances.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::current divider}} splits the total current between two or more parallel branches, in inverse proportion to the resistances.
Published	10/15/2024	When multiple sources are present in a circuit, {{c1::superposition}} is used to calculate the individual contribution of each source to the total cur…
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::equivalent resistance}} of resistors in series is the sum of all individual resistances, while the equivalent resistance of resistors in par…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Alternating current (AC)}} is an electric current that periodically reverses direction, in contrast to {{c2::direct current (DC)}} which flows o…
Published	10/15/2024	The standard waveform of AC electricity is a {{c1::sine wave}}, which repeats periodically.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Transformers}} allow AC voltages to be easily increased or decreased, enabling efficient long-distance power transmission.
Published	10/15/2024	In an AC circuit, the power loss due to heating in the conductor is given by {{c1::\( P_L = I^2 R \)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The formula for an AC sine waveform is {{c1::\( x(t) = A \cos(\omega t + \phi) \)}}, where \( A \) is the amplitude, \( \omega \) is the angular frequ…
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::root mean square (RMS) value}} of AC is a measure of the effective voltage or current and is equal to \( 0.707 \times V_{peak} \).
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::frequency}} of an AC signal is the number of cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz).
Published	10/15/2024	In an AC circuit, resistors cause the voltage and current to be {{c1::in phase}}, meaning they reach their peak values at the same time.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::power factor}} is the ratio of real power to apparent power in an AC circuit and is a measure of efficiency.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::RMS value}} of an AC voltage is equivalent to a DC voltage in terms of power dissipation in a resistor.
Published	10/15/2024	An {{c1::inductor}} is a passive electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::inductance}} of an inductor is measured in {{c2::henries (H)}} and represents the {{c3::EMF generated per unit change in current}}.
Published	10/15/2024	According to {{c1::Faraday's Law}}, a change in magnetic flux induces an EMF that opposes the change in current.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Lenz's Law}} states that the direction of induced current is such that it {{c2::opposes}} the change in magnetic flux that caused it.
Published	10/15/2024	In an RL circuit, the time constant \( \tau \) is given by {{c1::\( \tau = \frac{L}{R} \)}}, where \( L \) is the inductance and \( R \) is the resist…
Published	10/15/2024	The energy stored in an inductor is given by the formula {{c1::\( W_L = \frac{1}{2} L I^2 \)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	In an ideal inductor, current changes cause changes in the magnetic field, which in turn generates an opposing {{c1::electromotive force (EMF)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	In a {{c1::DC circuit}}, an inductor behaves as a short circuit after the magnetic field has fully developed.
Published	10/15/2024	The magnetic field around an inductor collapses when the current is interrupted, generating a large EMF that opposes the drop in current according to …
Published	10/15/2024	In an AC circuit, an inductor resists changes in current and behaves as an {{c1::open circuit}} for high frequencies.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Thevenin's theorem}} simplifies any linear electrical circuit to a single voltage source and series resistance.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Norton's theorem}} simplifies any linear electrical circuit to a single current source and parallel resistance.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::one-port network}} is a circuit with {{c2::two terminals}} that can be analyzed by its current-voltage characteristics.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::real voltage source}} has a small series resistance that causes a drop in terminal voltage as the load increases.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::source transformation}} technique allows us to convert between equivalent voltage and current sources.
Published	10/15/2024	In a voltage source, the terminal voltage decreases when load resistance is connected due to the {{c1::source's internal resistance}}.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Thévenin’s equivalent circuit}} consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Norton’s equivalent circuit}} consists of a current source in parallel with a resistor.
Published	10/15/2024	An {{c1::ideal current source}} provides a constant current regardless of the load resistance.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::real current source}} has a parallel resistance that limits the amount of current supplied to a load.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::A capacitor}} is a device that stores energy in the form of a charge separation when polarized by an electric field.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::dielectric}} in a capacitor is a non-conductive region that separates the two conductors.
Published	10/15/2024	Capacitance is defined as {{c1::\( C = \frac{Q}{V} \)}}, where \( Q \) is the charge stored and \( V \) is the voltage across the plates.
Published	10/15/2024	The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by the formula {{c1::\( C = \epsilon \frac{A}{d} \)}}, where \( \epsilon \) is permittivity, \(…
Published	10/15/2024	The relationship between current and voltage in a capacitor is {{c1::\( i(t) = C \frac{dv(t)}{dt} \)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	When a capacitor is charged, it can store energy, and the energy stored is given by the formula {{c1::\( W = \frac{1}{2} C V^2 \)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	In DC circuits, a capacitor behaves like an {{c1::open circuit}} after it is fully charged.
Published	10/15/2024	In AC circuits, a {{c3::capacitor}} behaves as a {{c1::short circuit}} for {{c2::high-frequency}} signals.
Published	10/15/2024	When a capacitor is discharging, its voltage decreases exponentially, and after one time constant, its voltage has decreased by {{c1::63.2\%}} of the …
Published	10/15/2024	The voltage across a capacitor is determined by the integral of current: {{c1::\( v_C(t) = \frac{1}{C} \int_{t_0}^{t} i_C(t') dt' + V_0 \)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Phasors}} are complex numbers used to represent {{c2::sinusoidal signals}} in a simplified form.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c4::voltage across a capacitor}} in an RC circuit when driven by a {{c3::sinusoidal voltage source}} has the same frequency as the source but ma…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Euler's identity}} relates the complex exponential \( e^{j\theta} \) to trigonometric functions: \( e^{j\theta} = \cos(\theta) + j\sin(\theta) \…
Published	10/15/2024	The expression \( A \cos(\omega t + \theta) \) can be rewritten as \( \text{Re}[A e^{j(\omega t + \theta)}] \) using {{c1::phasor notation}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The real part of a complex number represents the {{c1::cosine component}} of a sinusoidal signal in phasor notation.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::phasor representation}} of a sinusoidal signal captures the amplitude and phase but omits the frequency, which remains implicit.
Published	10/15/2024	The phasor corresponding to \( A \cos(\omega t + \theta) \) is \( A e^{j\theta} \), where \( A \) is the {{c1::amplitude}} and \( \theta \) is the {{c…
Published	10/15/2024	In phasor notation, sinusoidal voltages and currents are represented as {{c1::complex numbers}}, allowing for simplified calculations in AC circuit an…
Published	10/15/2024	The superposition of two sinusoidal signals with different frequencies results in a non-{{c1::sinusoidal waveform}}.
Published	10/15/2024	In phasor notation, adding two sinusoidal voltages involves adding their {{c1::complex representations}}.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Impedance}} is the frequency-dependent generalization of resistance and is measured in ohms (Ω).
Published	10/15/2024	The impedance of a resistor in an AC circuit is {{c1::frequency-independent}} and given by \( Z_R = R \).
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c2::impedance}} of an inductor is given by {{c1::\( Z_L = j\omega L \)}}, where \( \omega \) is the angular frequency and \( L \) is the in…
Published	10/15/2024	The impedance of a capacitor is given by {{c2::\( Z_C = \frac{1}{j\omega C} \)}}, which {{c3::decreases}} as the frequency increases, making capacitor…
Published	10/15/2024	In an LC circuit, the {{c1::resonant frequency}} is given by \( \omega_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{LC}} \), where \( L \) is inductance and \( C \) is capacita…
Published	10/15/2024	At the resonant frequency, a series LC circuit behaves like a {{c1::short circuit}}, while a parallel LC circuit behaves like an {{c2::open circuit}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::quality factor (Q)}} of a resonant circuit is the ratio of stored energy to energy dissipated per cycle and indicates the sharpness of the r…
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::bandwidth}} of a filter is the frequency range over which the filter passes a signal, usually defined as the range where the signal power is…
Published	10/15/2024	The gain of an amplifier in decibels (dB) is given by the formula {{c1::\( G = 10 \log \frac{P_{out} }{P_{in} } \)}}.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::low-pass filter}} allows signals with frequencies below a certain cutoff frequency to pass through while attenuating higher frequencies.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::microcontroller}} is essentially a computer on a chip, containing a CPU, memory, and I/O ports.
Published	10/15/2024	The basic structure of a microcontroller includes components like {{c1::CPU}}, {{c2::RAM}}, {{c3::ROM}}, {{c4::I/O ports}}, and {{c5::ADC/DAC}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::CPU}} retrieves program instructions stored in the {{c2::ROM}} and uses {{c3::RAM}} for temporary data storage during execution.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::timer/counter}} in a microcontroller provides the clock needed for program execution and handling events.
Published	10/15/2024	In microcontrollers, the {{c1::watchdog timer}} can be used to put the device into a low-power sleep mode and wake it after a set period.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Semiconductors}} are materials whose electrical properties fall between conductors and insulators.
Published	10/15/2024	In semiconductors, the movement of {{c1::free electrons}} and {{c2::holes}} allows for the flow of electric current.
Published	10/15/2024	When electrons leave the valence band in a semiconductor, they create {{c1::holes}}, which act as positive charge carriers.
Published	10/15/2024	The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor to increase its conductivity is called {{c1::doping}}.
Published	10/15/2024	In {{c1::n-type}} semiconductors, free{{c3:: electrons}} are the majority charge carriers, while in {{c2::p-type}} semiconductors, {{c3::holes}} are t…
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::pn junction}} is formed when p-type and n-type materials are joined, creating a depletion region where mobile charge carriers recombine.
Published	10/15/2024	In forward bias, a diode allows current to flow from the {{c1::anode}} (p-type) to the {{c2::cathode}} (n-type) when the forward voltage exceeds the t…
Published	10/15/2024	In reverse bias, a {{c1::depletion region}} forms at the pn junction, preventing current from flowing through the diode.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::half-wave rectifier}} converts AC signals to DC by allowing only one half of the AC waveform to pass through.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::full-wave rectifier}} uses a bridge circuit to convert both halves of an AC waveform into DC, making it more efficient than a half-wave rectif…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Digital electronics}} involves circuits that work with discrete voltage states, typically high (1) and low (0).
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Serial transmission}} uses a single data line to send one bit at a time, while {{c2::parallel transmission}} sends multiple bits simultaneously …
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::I2C protocol}} uses two data lines (SCL and SDA) and can support multiple devices on the same bus.
Published	10/15/2024	In {{c1::TTL Serial}}, two pins are used for communication: Tx (transmit) and Rx (receive), with no separate clock signal.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Analog-to-digital converters (ADC)}} convert analog signals into a series of binary numbers proportional to the analog voltage level.
Published	10/15/2024	The resolution of an ADC determines the number of {{c2::discrete analog levels it can represent}}. For example, an 8-bit ADC has {{c1::256}} possible …
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Digital-to-analog converters (DAC)}} take binary numbers and convert them into proportional analog voltages.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::SPI protocol}} uses four data lines and is faster than I2C, with typical speeds of up to 80 Mbit/s.
Published	10/15/2024	In an ADC, higher resolution (more bits) leads to smaller steps between analog levels, providing a more accurate representation of the {{c1::analog si…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Sensors}} are devices that measure physical properties (e.g., temperature, pressure) and convert them into electrical signals.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::precision}} of a sensor refers to how finely the measurements are reported, while {{c2::accuracy}} refers to how close the measurements are …
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::observer effect}} states that the act of measuring a property can change the property being measured.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::thermistor}} is a type of temperature sensor whose resistance changes with temperature, with negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Thermocouples}} generate a small voltage based on the Seebeck effect, making them useful for measuring high temperatures.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::force-sensitive resistor}} changes its resistance based on the pressure applied to it, making it useful for simple force measurements.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Ultrasonic distance sensors}} measure the time it takes for an ultrasound pulse to return after bouncing off an object, calculating distance bas…
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Optical distance sensors}} use infrared pulses and measure the reflected light to estimate distance, commonly used for proximity detection.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Capacitive sensors}} detect the proximity of a conductor (like a human hand) by measuring changes in capacitance.
Published	10/15/2024	An {{c1::accelerometer}} measures the force of acceleration and can detect orientation changes, often used in smartphones.
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::light-emitting diode (LED)}} is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows through it.
Published	10/15/2024	The process of light emission in an LED, where electrons and holes recombine, is called {{c1::electroluminescence}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The color of light emitted by an LED depends on the {{c1::band gap energy}} of the materials forming the p-n junction.
Published	10/15/2024	In an LED, the energy dissipated during the recombination of electrons and holes is emitted in the form of {{c1::photons}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The voltage drop across an LED depends on its {{c1::color}} and {{c2::semiconductor material}}.
Published	10/15/2024	The efficiency of light sources is measured in {{c1::lumens per watt (lm/W)}}, with LEDs being far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.
Published	10/15/2024	An advantage of LEDs is that they emit light of an intended color without the need for {{c1::color filters}}.
Published	10/15/2024	A disadvantage of LEDs is their {{c1::temperature dependence}}: performance can degrade in high ambient temperatures.
Published	10/15/2024	To prevent damage, an LED circuit must limit the current, which can be done by placing a {{c1::resistor}} in series with the LED.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Electric charge}} is measured in coulombs (C) and is carried by ions, which are atoms with either a deficit or a surplus of electrons.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::resistivity}} of a material determines how much it resists the flow of electric current and is affected by the material’s temperature.
Published	10/15/2024	The {{c1::mesh current method}} applies Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to solve for unknown currents in each loop of a circuit.
Published	10/15/2024	{{c1::Superposition}} allows the calculation of total current or voltage in a circuit by considering the contribution from each independent source sep…
Published	10/15/2024	A {{c1::capacitor}} stores energy in the form of an electric field, created by the separation of positive and negative charges.
Published	10/15/2024	An {{c1::inductor}} stores energy in the form of a magnetic field, which is created when current flows through a coil of wire.
Published	10/15/2024	In an RLC circuit, {{c1::resonance}} occurs when the {{c3::inductive reactance}} equals the {{c2::capacitive reactance}}, maximizing the circuit’s cur…
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