Notes in BiochemExam4

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Published	04/29/2023	Fatty acids are {{c1::amphipathic}} meaning they have hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions of the molecule. The hydrocarbon tail is {{c1::hy…
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Triacylglycerols}} are a form of {{c1::long term}} energy storage for plants and animals.
Published	04/29/2023	Triacyglycerols have a {{c1::glycerol}} back bone that looks like:
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Mixed}} triacyclycerols have {{c1::3 different}} fatty acids attached to them.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Triacyglycerols}} have this relative structure:  (fatty acids can be different)
Published	04/29/2023	Structural lipids must be {{c1::amphipathic}} and may {{c1::contain phosphate}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Glycerophospholipids are a type of {{c1::structural lipid}} that have a {{c1::glycerol}} backbone and the third carbon attached to a {{c1::phosph…
Published	04/29/2023	Triacyclglycerols are attached through {{c1::ester}} linkages.
Published	04/29/2023	The 5 phosphoesters are: {{c1::Choline}}{{c1::Serine}}{{c1::Glycerol}}{{c1::Ethanolamine}}{{c1::Inositol}}
Published	04/29/2023	This is {{c1::Phosphatidylcholine}}
Published	04/29/2023	Which phosphoester group is this? {{c1::glycerol}} What would the name of the glycerophospholipid be? {{c1::diphosphatidylglycerol}}
Published	04/29/2023	This glycerophospholipid is {{c1::phosphatidylinositol}}
Published	04/29/2023	This glycerophospholipid is {{c1::phosphatidylserine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This glycerophospholipid is {{c1::phosphatidylethanolamine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This glycerophospholipid is {{c1::phosphatidylglycerol}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Etherglycerophospholipids}} have an {{c1::ether linkage}} at {{c1::C 1}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The a in phosphatidalethanolamine means {{c1::ether linkage at C 1}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Plasmalogens are {{c1::glycerol}} based.
Published	04/29/2023	A {{c1::plasmalogen}} is a structural lipid that has an {{c2::ether}} linkage to one C and a {{c2::alkene}} on a terminal C before the fatty acid chai…
Published	04/29/2023	Sphingolipids are {{c1::sphingosine}} based, not {{c1::glycerol}} based.
Published	04/29/2023	This lipid has a {{c1::sphingosine}} backbone
Published	04/29/2023	A {{c1::sphingosine}} and a fatty acid make a {{c2::ceramide}}.
Published	04/29/2023	A {{c2::ceramide}} and a phosphate or phosphoester make a {{c1::sphingomyelin}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Natural membrane composition: 20-80% {{c1::lipids}}20-80% {{c1::protein}}
Published	04/29/2023	Membranes function to {{c4::compartmentalize}}. prevent {{c2::free flow}} of moleculesseparates interior of cell from {{c2::enviro…
Published	04/29/2023	At {{c1::low}} lipid concentrations, lipids organize themselves in an aqueous solution with the {{c1::hydrocarbon tail}} outside of the solution in th…
Published	04/29/2023	At higher lipid concentrations, lipids for 3D bubbles also known as {{c1::micelles}}. They have {{c1::hydrophobic}} interactions.
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c1::Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC)}} is the specific lipid concentrated needed to form micelles in aqueous solutions.
Published	04/29/2023	Above the CMC -> {{c1::form micelle}}Different amphipathic molecules have different {{c1::CMC's}}
Published	04/29/2023	Hexane makes {{c1::inside out micelles}}
Published	04/29/2023	Soap can make {{c1::micelles}} and can disolve {{c1::nonpolar}} substances.
Published	04/29/2023	Simple soap: {{c1::animal fat and ashes}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The highest lipid concentrations make {{c1::lipid bilayers}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The outer layer of a lipid bilayer is called the {{c1::outer leaflet}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Lateral motion}} is rapid movement {{c1::within a leaflet}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Transverse motion}} is slow movement {{c2::between leaflets}}
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Cholesterol}} determines {{c1::leakiness}} of the lipid bilayer
Published	04/29/2023	Many proteins on the outer leaflet are {{c1::glycosylated}} and are important for {{c1::binding specificity. }}
Published	04/29/2023	Membranes are very {{c1::asymmetric}} within and between leaflets, especially kidney cell membranes.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Flippases}} catalyze between leaflet motionHave ATPase activityCan go against concentration gradientMoves lipids from the {{c2::outer to the inn…
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Floppases}} catalyze between leaflet motionHave ATPase activityCan go against the concentration gradientMove lipids from {{c1::inner to outer}} …
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Scramblases}} catalyze between leaflet motion from outer to inner or from inner to outer{{c2::No ATPase activity}} {{c2::Lipids flow down c…
Published	04/29/2023	3 Types of Membrane Proteins: {{c1::Peripheral}} (extrinsic){{c1::Integral}} (intrinsic){{c1::Lipid Anchored}}
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Peripheral/extrinsic proteins}} are Attached to the cytosolic/extracellular plasma membrane surrfaceDont {{c1::penetrate bilayer}}Don't hav…
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Integral/Intrinsic Proteins }}Do {{c1::penetrate/partially penetrate the lipid bilayer}}Have membrane spanning regions that are very {…
Published	04/29/2023	Lipid Anchored Membrane ProteinsLipids can be added post-translationally to residues. A fatty acid attached to a Cysteine forms a {{c1::thioleste…
Published	04/29/2023	At {{c1::low}} temperature, structural lipids are in semi-solid or gel-like form called {{c1::So: solid ordered}}.
Published	04/29/2023	At {{c1::higher}} temperatures, structural lipids are in a disordered liquid state.
Published	04/29/2023	The phase transition from Solid Ordered or Liquid Disordered is {{c1::endothermic}}. Entropy {{c1::increases}}
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c1::melting temperature}} for structural lipid phases is different for each structural phospholipid.
Published	04/29/2023	In the solid ordered phase, there is not much movement with fatty acid tails and membranes are at their {{c1::maximum}} thickness.
Published	04/29/2023	In the liquid disordered state, the membrane is {{c1::15%}} less thick than the solid ordered state.
Published	04/29/2023	In general, the {{c1::longer}} the fatty acids, the {{c2::greater}} the melting temperature
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Unsaturating}} a fatty acid greatly {{c2::decreases}} melting temperature.
Published	04/29/2023	3 Classes of membrane transport: {{c1::Passive}}{{c1::Facilitated}}{{c1::Active}}
Published	04/29/2023	In {{c1::passive}} transportsome small nonpolar molecules pass through the membranes by themselvesno transport protein neededhigh to low concentration
Published	04/29/2023	In {{c1::facilitated diffusion}}:Specific transport protein is neededOnly flow from high to low
Published	04/29/2023	In {{c1::active}} transport:Requires transport proteinFlows from high to low (exergonic) or low to high (endergonic, ATP hydrolysis) concentrations
Published	04/29/2023	Gibbs Free Energy in Passive diffusion:
Published	04/29/2023	For charged molecules that passively diffuse:
Published	04/29/2023	e66bc1c5ddcb495dbd940b8a5b78c5c5-ao-1
Published	04/29/2023	e66bc1c5ddcb495dbd940b8a5b78c5c5-ao-2
Published	04/29/2023	Transport proteins are {{c1::integral membrane spanning}} proteins.
Published	04/29/2023	Transport proteins are most often non polar {{c1::alpha helices}}, {{c1::beta barrels}} are rarely used.
Published	04/29/2023	Transport proteins have {{c1::selectivity filters}} which specifically bind to transported molecules.
Published	04/29/2023	Binding of the proper molecule to a {{c1::selectivity filter}} induces a {{c1::conformational change}} and opens channel.
Published	04/29/2023	The sodium potassium pump is{{c1::Active}} transporterIn all cells, where {{c1::20-40%}} of the cells energy is expended
Published	04/29/2023	The cellular concentrations of {{c2::Na+}} is around {{c1::10mM}} and the cellular concentration of {{c2::K+}} is around {{c1::100mM}}.&nbsp…
Published	04/29/2023	The extracellular concentration of {{c2::Na+}} is around {{c1::100-150mM}} and {{c2::K+}} is around {{c1::5-10mM}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Many enzymes within the cell require {{c1::K+}} and are inhibited by {{c1::Na+}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Peptidyl transferase is inhibited by {{c1::Na+}} and requires {{c1::K+}}
Published	04/29/2023	In a {{c1::direct active}} transporter, the transporter itself hydrolyzes ATP and is an ATPase.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Cotransporters}} necessarily require transport of BOTH {{c1::Na+ and K+}}
Published	04/29/2023	Antiporters transport K+ and Na+ in {{c1::opposite directions}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Cells that have affinity for glucose: {{c1::Brain cells}}{{c1::Red Blood cells}}{{c2::Adipose cells}}{{c2::Liver cells}}
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c2::gastric proton pump}} is also known as the {{c1::H+, K+ ATPase}}
Published	04/29/2023	The Gastric Proton Pump is a direct active transporter that helps {{c1::acidify the stomach}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The gastric proton pump uses ATP to pump K+ {{c1::against its concentration gradient}} while pumping {{c2::H+ out of the mucosal cell}} and into the s…
Published	04/29/2023	The Gastric Proton Pump is a Direct active{{c1::Cotransporter}}{{c1::Antiporter}}
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c1::Chloride Transporter}} utilizes the {{c2::K+ concentration gradient}} (higher inside the mucosal cell) to pump {{c1::Cl- out of the cell and…
Published	04/29/2023	The Chloride Transporter: Utilizes K+ gradient{{c1::Secondary active transporter}}Cotransporter{{c1::Symporter}}
Published	04/29/2023	Using the chloride transporter and gastric proton pump, the net transport {{c1::into the stomach}} is {{c1::HCl}}
Published	04/29/2023	Carbohydrates can only be taken up as {{c1::monosaccharides}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Between the intestine and epithelial cell, the Na+/K+ pump pumps 3 Na+ {{c1::out of the endothelial cell}} and 2 K+ {{c1::into the endothelial cell}}.…
Published	04/29/2023	The Glucose Transporter on the surface of the endothelial cell near the intestine utilizes the {{c1::concentration gradient of Na+}} (high outside of …
Published	04/29/2023	The Glucose Transporter: {{c1::Secondary active}}Cotransporter{{c1::Symporter}}
Published	04/29/2023	The flow of any ion down its concentration gradient is an {{c1::exergonic}} reaction.
Published	04/29/2023	D-glucose is in high concentrations in the endothelial cell. The {{c1::glucose uniporter}} allows glucose to exit the endothelial cell and enter the b…
Published	04/29/2023	DNA and RNA are polymers of {{c1::nucleotides}} also called {{c1::nucleic acids}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Nucleotides contain {{c1::5C sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)}}{{c1::Aromatic nitrogenous base}}{{c1::1-3 phosphates}}
Published	04/29/2023	A nucleoside consists of a {{c1::5C sugar}} and {{c1:: an aromatic nitrogenous base}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Aromatic}} compounds have the following properties: Very nonpolarStablePlanar (or nearly so)
Published	04/29/2023	There are two types of aromatic bases in nucleic acids in the body: {{c1::Purines}}{{c1::Pyrimidines}}
Published	04/29/2023	This is the basic structure of {{c1::pyrimidines}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Cytosine, Uracil, and Thymine}} are {{c2::pyrimidines}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Cytosine is found in {{c1::RNA and DNA}}, Uracil is found in {{c1::RNA}}, and Thymine is found in {{c1::DNA}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Cytosine}} is also known as {{c2::2 oxy, 4 amino pyrimidine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Thymine}} is also known as {{c2::2,4 oxy 5 methyl pyrimidine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Uracil}} is also known as {{c1::2,4 oxy pyrimidine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This molecule is {{c1::Cytosine}}
Published	04/29/2023	This molecule is {{c1::Uracil}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This molecule is {{c1::Thymine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This is the basic structure of {{c1::purines}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Adenine and Guanine are both found in {{c1::DNA and RNA}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c2::Adenine}} is also known as {{c1::6 amino purine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Guanine}} is also known as {{c2::2 amino, 6 oxy purine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This molecule is {{c1::adenine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	This molecule is {{c1::guanine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	AMP is actually named {{c1::5' adenine monophosphate}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c1::Avery-MacLeod Experiment}} used pneumococcal bacteria with virulent and nonvirulent strain to see if DNA or protein were the genetic compone…
Published	04/29/2023	Virulence requires {{c1::living,dividing}} bacteria.
Published	04/29/2023	Nonvirulent strains can be transformed into virulence by {{c1::heat killed virulence}} incubated with nonvirulent strains.
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c1::Hershey-Chase}} experiment attempted to solidify the results of the Avery-MacLeod experiment to the scientific community and prove DNA was t…
Published	04/29/2023	In the double radiolabel experiment (Hershey-Chase), a T2 bacteriophage was grown in S 35. S 35: Emits a beta particleRadiolabels {{c1::protein n…
Published	04/29/2023	S 32:Emits a beta particleRadiolabels {{c1::DNA not protein}}
Published	04/29/2023	The DNA strand goes from {{c1::5'}} to {{c1::3'}} where the {{c1::5'}} end has an OH at the {{c1::5}} position on the deoxyribose …
Published	04/29/2023	DNA is chemically {{c1::stable}} while RNA is chemically {{c1::unstable}} due to the 2' OH. The 2' OH can react with a base and {{c2::cleave…
Published	04/29/2023	In cells, {{c1::RNAse}} degrades RNA.
Published	04/29/2023	Some bacteria are much more AT ({{c1::80}}%) or CG ({{c1::70}}%) rich.
Published	04/29/2023	Individuals of the same species have {{c1::the same}} base content.
Published	04/29/2023	Different tissues have {{c1::the same}} base content.
Published	04/29/2023	Over time, base composition {{c1::doesn't change}} in an organism.
Published	04/29/2023	Chargaff's rule states that for all species, the amount of {{c1::purines, A and G}} = {{c1::the amount of pyrimidines, C and T}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Xray crystallography}}: Make DNA crystals > hit them with xrays > diffraction pattern > mathematically determine mlql structure.
Published	04/29/2023	DNA Xray Crystallography data collected by Rosalind Franklin showed: {{c1::DNA was helical}}DNA has {{c2::periodicities}} (repeating regions) of&…
Published	04/29/2023	The distance between nucleotides is {{c1::0.34 nm}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The distance between each helix turn is about {{c1::3.4 nm}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Each turn of the DNA double helix occurs at about every {{c1::10}} nucleotides.
Published	04/29/2023	Watson and Crick studied the {{c1::secondary}} structure of DNA, which includes: 2 strands of DNA {{c1::not covalently}} linked. Strand…
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c1::weak}} forces that hold together the {{c1::secondary}} structure of are: {{c2::Base stacking}} (london dispersion forces){{c2::Hyd…
Published	04/29/2023	95% or more of specific DNA binding proteins are {{c1::major groove}} specific because it is easier to access bases.
Published	04/29/2023	All* organisms have {{c1::negatively}} supercoiled DNA.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Plasmids}} small circular DNA that replicate independently of bacterial DNA.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Linking #}}: The number of times the two strands cross over. For relaxed DNA (no supercoiling) {{c1::Linking # = # of nucleotides/10 (because fo…
Published	04/29/2023	To change the linking number for a plasmid, we must {{c1::break at least 1 strand}}.
Published	04/29/2023	For a relaxed 400 nt plasmid, Linking number = {{c1:: 40}}. If we break one strand, unwind 4 turns, and then reseal, the Linking number now =&nbs…
Published	04/29/2023	For a relaxed 400 nt plasmid, Linking number = {{c1:: 40}}. If we break one strand, wind 4 turns, and then reseal, the Linking number now = …
Published	04/29/2023	If we unwind DNA, we are making {{c1::negative}} supercoils. If we wind DNA, we are making {{c1:: positive}} supercoils.
Published	04/29/2023	Strands are easier to replicate with {{c1::negative}} supercoiling.
Published	04/29/2023	DNA Structure: Primary: {{c1::deoxyribonucleotides held together by 5' - 3' phosphodiester bonds}}Secondary: {{c2::Watson-Crick double …
Published	04/29/2023	DNA Supercoiling: Natural DNA is {{c1::negatively}} supercoiledLinking # = {{c1::# of nucleotides / 10}}To change Linking #, {{c2:…
Published	04/29/2023	DNA gyrase: {{c1::removes supercoils made from moving replication fork}}.
Published	04/29/2023	No DNA gyrase, {{c1::transcription stops}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Enzymes that can change linking number: {{c1::DNA gyrases, DNA Topoisomerases}}.
Published	04/29/2023	DNA Gyrases: Transiently break {{c1::1 strand}} {{c1::Add or remove}} supercoilsSeal nick{{c1::ATPase}}
Published	04/29/2023	DNA Topoisomerases: Transient break {{c1::both DNA strands}}{{c1::Remove}} supercoils caused by replication forksSeal {{c1::double stra…
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Single stranded break}}: Easy for {{c2::ligase}} to come along and repair{{c2::Gyrases}} can fix nickDue to base pairing, no separation
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Double stranded break}}Some parts of the chromosome can separateCan be impossible to repairMultiple {{c2::double stranded breaks}} >&nbs…
Published	04/29/2023	Anti-cancer therapies have targeted {{c1::topoisomerase}} for inhibition. Inhibit {{c1::topoisomerase after breaking both strands}}No b…
Published	04/29/2023	Nucleosomes:{{c1::Higher order}} DNA structure in eukaryotesNot a {{c1::static}} structure{{c2::50-200}} nucleotides between "beads"Different {{c…
Published	04/29/2023	There are 5 {{c1::Histone}} proteins: {{c1::H1}}{{c1::H2A}}{{c1::H2B}}{{c1::H3}}{{c1::H4}}
Published	04/29/2023	The octamer core of the nucleosome is made of these histone proteins: 2 {{c1::H2A}}2 {{c1::H2B}}2 {{c1::H3}}2 {{c1::H4}}
Published	04/29/2023	Histones are {{c1::fairly small}} and {{c1::very positive, in order to bind to the negative DNA backbone}}.
Published	04/29/2023	DNA is wrapped {{c1::2 times}} around the octamer core
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::H1}} {{c2::sandwiches DNA and the octamer core together}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Loosely packed DNA - genes that are expressed: {{c1::Euchromatin}}
Published	04/29/2023	Tightly packed DNA- most genes are not expressed ({{c1::Heterochromatin}})
Published	04/29/2023	Post-translational histone modifications determine {{c1::which genes are expressed and which aren't}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Histone methylation turns genes {{c1::OFF}}, acelylation turns genes {{c1::ON}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Post translational histone modifications change {{c1::nucleosome density}} and {{c1::DNA packing}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Oxidative}} damage is the most common type of DNA damage.
Published	04/29/2023	Oxidative damage of DNA leads to the {{c1::deamination}} of bases, changing their {{c1::H-bonding characteristics}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Deamination of {{c2::Cytosine}} makes the nitrogenous base {{c1::Uracil}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Deamination of bases occurs about {{c1::1000x}} a day in humans.
Published	04/29/2023	The {{c2::deamination}} repair system recognizes {{c1::Uracil}} in DNA and removes it, remaking DNA.
Published	04/29/2023	Deamination damage to cytosine is caused by {{c1::diatomic oxygen}} removing {{c1::an amine group}} and replacing it with {{c1::a carbonyl}}.&nbs…
Published	04/29/2023	Cytosine being replaced with Uracil in DNA deamination can cause {{c1::Adenine}} to be transcribed instead of {{c1::Cytosine}}.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Adenine}} can be deaminated into {{c2::hypoxanthine}}, a purine not found in DNA.
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Guanine}} can be deaminated into {{c2::xanthine}}, a purine not found in DNA.
Published	04/29/2023	Another form of DNA damage is alkylation of DNA by {{c1::alkylating agents}}.
Published	04/29/2023	The most common functional groups added during alkylation of DNA are {{c1::methyl -{{c2::CH3}}}}, {{c1::ethyl - {{c2::CH2CH3}}}}, or {{…
Published	04/29/2023	The dinucleotide 5' {{c1::CG}} 3' is most often methylated to {{c1::C(-CH3) G}}.
Published	04/29/2023	CG is effectively excluded from the human genome (only about {{c1::1}}%) except in {{c1::regulatory places}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Some genes have flanking regions that are rich in {{c1::CG}} called {{c1::CG islands}}.
Published	04/29/2023	If flanking CGs are not methylated, dubbed {{c1::hypomethylation}}, {{c1::the gene is expressed}}.
Published	04/29/2023	If flanking CGs are methylated, dubbed {{c1::hypermethylation}}, {{c1::the gene is NOT expressed}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Imprinted genesMost genes on {{c1::somatic}} chromosomes have 2 copies (1 mom, 1 dad)Some imprinted genes only have 1 copy that is expressed, and…
Published	04/29/2023	{{c1::Embryonic}} betaglobin is expressed in early gestation. {{c1::Fetal}} betaglobin is expressed in late gestation. {{c1::Adult}} betaglo…
Published	04/29/2023	Embryonic and fetal hemoglobin {{c1::have a higher affinity for}} oxygen.
Published	04/29/2023	Adult betaglobin {{c1::is better at returning}} oxygen.
Published	04/29/2023	Fetal betaglobin has {{c1::hypomethylated}} CG islands during late gestation. Near birth, CG islands become {{c1::hypermethylated}} and expressio…
Published	04/29/2023	In sickle cell anemia and thalasemias, {{c1::mutations of betaglobin}} occur.
Published	04/29/2023	RNA secondary structures include hairpin or {{c1::stem-loops}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Stem loops are Recognized by {{c1::RNA binding proteins}}{{c1::Stabilize}} RNAProtect from {{c1::RNAses}}Nicking {{c1::does not separat…
Published	04/29/2023	Types of RNA: {{c1::Messenger RNA}}{{c1::Transfer RNA}}{{c1::Ribosomal RNA}}{{c1::Micro RNA}}
Published	04/29/2023	Messenger RNA (mRNA) {{c1::encodes proteins}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Transfer RNA: First called small stable RNAsVery stable/ {{c1::long half-life}}Lots of {{c1::secondary structure}}Covalently attached t…
Published	04/29/2023	Aminoacyl tRNA: {{c1::peptide bond}} formation (chemical {{c1::activation}})Specificity - ribosome recognizes {{c1::tRNA}} but not {{c1::fre…
Published	04/29/2023	Ribosomal RNA is in ribosomes and has {{c1::catalytic}} activity.
Published	04/29/2023	Micro RNA (miRNA): {{c1::20-22}} nucleotides long{{c1::Regulate gene expression}} (controversial)Approximately {{c2::1000}} in humansCombine…
Published	04/29/2023	Micro RNA binding to target mRNA {{c1::prevents translation}} of target mRNA.
Published	04/29/2023	Once the miRNA binds to the mRNA, the mRNA is targeted for {{c1::degredation}} and mRNA translation is inhibited.
Published	04/29/2023	Prokaryotic mRNA: {{c1::Short half-lives}}Most are {{c1::polycistronic}} : {{c2::more than 1 gene product per mRNA (multiple proteins)}}No s…
Published	04/29/2023	In the presence of Tryptophan in the environment, transcription of the Trp operon {{c1::stops/ is inhibited}}. In the absence of Tryptophan, tran…
Published	04/29/2023	Eukaryotic mRNA: {{c1::Long half-lives}}Most are {{c1::monocistronic}}, 1 mRNA = 1 proteinRNA {{c2::is processed in the nucleus}} and is nee…
Published	04/29/2023	The transformation from DNA to proteins is {{c1::colinear}} in {{c2::prokaryotes}} but not in {{c2::eukaryotes}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Splicing occurs in the nucleus at the {{c1::spliceosome}}.
Published	04/29/2023	Mature mRNA contains only {{c1::exons}} and a {{c1::closed circular structure called a lariat intron}}.
Published	04/29/2023	RNA forms a {{c1::single stranded}}, {{c1::right-handed}} helix
Published	04/29/2023	Base stacking of purines is stronger/more stable than base stacking of a purine and a pyrimidine or two pyrimidines because {{c1::of the dou…
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