Notes in Lecture

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Published	09/13/2023	ATP has two high energy {{c1::anhydride}} bonds... - for {{c2::muscle contraction}}, use energy stored between {{c4::beta}} and {{c4::gamma}} pho…
Published	09/13/2023	main sources of ATP are {{c1::carbohydrates}} and {{c1::lipids}}
Published	09/13/2023	macromolecules & amount of energy 1. Carbohydrates (Glucose) – {{c2::4::#}} Calories*preferred, all tissues can use it 2. Triglycerides (fatty ac…
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::brain::organ}} requires glucose... cannot use fatty acids despite having mitochondria - FAs are insoluble and are bound to albumin → c…
Published	09/13/2023	meals high in {{c1::protein}} will increase release of both insulin and glucagon- insulin: help transport {{c1::protein/AAs}} into cell - glucago…
Published	09/13/2023	glycolysis ({{c1::anaerobic::aerobic/anaerobic}} metabolism) produces 2 ATP molecules
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Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::creatine phosphate}} is another high energy compound abundant in muscle and brain → replenishes ATP before glycolysis
Published	09/13/2023	Energy production in skeletal muscle:- ATP stores are depleted wtihin {{c1::2}} seconds but {{c2::glycolysis}} only follows slowly and peaks 30+ …
Published	09/13/2023	glycogen and triglyceride energy stores in the body {{c2::Liver}}: stores glucose as glycogen (about 100 grams) → {{c5::exports}} glucose when b…
Published	09/13/2023	Glycerol, {{c3::fatty acids}}, and cholesterol have some {{c1::polar}} groups → can interact with water triglycerides and cholesteryl {{c2::ester}} (…
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::2::#}} carbon moieties (acetate, alcohol) can be used to make fatty acids but not glucose *only {{c1::3::#}} carbon moieties (gly…
Published	09/14/2023	Triglycerides*synthesis & degradation involves addition or removal of two carbons at a time (as {{c1::acetate}}) - after meals, intestine uses {{…
Published	09/13/2023	bad/unhealthy cholesterol is {{c1::LDL}}{{c1::HDL}} is good cholesterol
Published	09/14/2023	lipid metabolism1. dietary lipids → absorbed through intestinal cells into bloodstream as {{c1::chylomicrons}} → provides FAs to rest of body and used…
Published	09/14/2023	{{c1::statin}}: oral drug that decreases blood cholesterol levels and {{c2::LDL}} levels → less plaque formed → less {{c3::heart attacks}} and le…
Published	09/15/2023	{{c1::(oxidized) LDL}} is the immediate precursor particle for plaques
Published	09/13/2023	Plaque formation → narrowing of lumen → formation of {{c2::thrombus}} → leads local {{c1::ischemia}} and strokes
Published	09/13/2023	Cells take up LDL → release and use {{c2::cholesterol}} - if there is high LDL levels, LDL is naturally {{c1::oxidized}} → {{c1::oxidized}} LDL t…
Published	09/13/2023	Ketone bodiesan alternate fuel- fatty acids (FA) are transported bound to {{c1::albumin}} → cannot enter brainbinding capacity limited - ketone bodi…
Published	09/13/2023	ethanol (alcohol) cannot be used to make {{c1::glucose}}
Published	09/14/2023	Alcohol (ethanol) metabolism - {{c1::liver}} mainly handles alcohol (ethanol, methanol, ethylene glycol) →  two key enzymes convert to {{c5::ace…
Published	09/13/2023	most of the energy reserves are {{c1::triglycerides (TGs)}} stored in adipose tissue*can be synthesized from {{c2::acetate}} or obtained from diet&nbs…
Published	09/13/2023	DNA found in cell {{c1::nucleus}} and {{c2::mitochondria}} 23 pairs of chromosomes, linear DNA with telomers in {{c1::nucleus}}circular DNA (li…
Published	09/13/2023	in human cells, protein synthesis occurs in {{c1::cytoplasm}} and {{c2::mitochondria}}
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::endomembrane system}} divides cell into compartments and produces various {{c3::macromolecules}} (proteins, lipids)→ ER (rough and smooth)→ Golg…
Published	09/13/2023	steps of endomembrane system1. rough ER surface ribosomes produce polypeptides → kept in lumen of ER (not in cytosol) → then go to smooth ER2. smooth …
Published	09/15/2023	How proteins end up in different compartments*default pathway: no additional signals... proteins stays in {{c1::cytoplasm}}  → To RER and then co…
Published	09/13/2023	neurons make a lot of protein so they will have a lot of {{c1::RER::RER/SER}} adrenal cortex synthesize a lot of lipids so will have a lot of {{c1::SE…
Published	09/13/2023	Cells Rich in Rough ER- mucus-secreting {{c3::goblet}} cells in small intestine - {{c2::antibody}}-secreting plasma cells - neurons contain subcellula…
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::Tay-Sachs}} disease is a genetic lysosomal storage disorder due to an enzyme deficiency
Published	09/13/2023	Prion disease (spongiform {{c3::encephalitis}})→ PrP(C) with an {{c2::alpha helix}} is the normal protein *this structure is more soluble → can b…
Published	09/13/2023	Cystic fibrosis ({{c2::delta phenylalanine}})most common genetic disease amongst CaucasionsCFTR: Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrance conductance Regulato…
Published	09/13/2023	alpha-antitrypsin deficiency*⍺1-Antitrypsin (A1AT): produced in {{c1::liver}} → released into circulation → normally, protects lungs form neutrophil {…
Published	09/13/2023	influx of {{c1::calcium}} ions promotes exocytosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters
Published	09/14/2023	secretion problems:- {{c1::tetanus}} toxin: protease that cleaves {{c5::receptors}} used for movement of vesicles in neurons → blocks secretion o…
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Published	09/13/2023	Botox works by inhibiting release of {{c1::ACh}} by exocytosis
Published	09/13/2023	misfolded proteins are refolded using {{c1::chaperones}}. If the refolding is not successful, misfolded proteins are degraded
Published	09/13/2023	most frequent genetic disorder in urea cycle is mutation to {{c1::ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC)}} enzyme
Published	09/13/2023	urea synthesis occurs in the {{c1::liver::organ}}
Published	09/13/2023	urea synthesis occurs in the {{c1::cytoplasm::organelle}} and {{c1::mitochondria::organelle}} of the {{c2::liver::organ}}
Published	09/13/2023	nitrogen waste is mostly excreted as {{c1::urea}} *{{c1::urea}} has one carbon and two amine groups → carbon in urea is derived from {{c2::c…
Published	09/13/2023	{{c1::ALT}} and {{c1::AST}} enzymes are used as liver tissue markers *for normal liver function
Published	09/13/2023	diet low in {{c1::proteins}} would be a good treatment for a patient with urea cycle disorder and high blood ammonia levels
Published	09/13/2023	OTC Deficiency*most common urea cycle disorder - only {{c1::X}}-linked {{c2::recessive}} {{c4::enzyme}} deficiency in urea cycle- leads to increased …
Published	09/14/2023	sodium {{c2::phenylbutyrate}} - prescribed to help reduce {{c1::ammonia}} levels*high {{c1::ammonia}} levels is fatal due to abnormal pH- pr…
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Published	09/13/2023	Liver synthesizes fatty acids and links them to {{c1::glycerol}} and makes {{c3::triglycerides}}Liver makes cholesterol and links it to {{c2::one fatt…
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