Notes in 6 Carbohydrate Metabolism

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Published	07/30/2024	Cofactors of the enzyme complexes: {{c3::pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH)}}, {{c3::α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDH)}}, and {{c3::bran…
Published	07/30/2024	Digestion is the biochemical process by which food molecules, through {{c1::hydrolysis}}, are broken down into simpler chemical units that can be used…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Glycolysis}} is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is converted into 2 molecules of pyruvate, chemical energy in the form of ATP is produced…
Published	07/30/2024	One molecule of glucose completing glycolysis produces a net result of{{c1::2 pyruvate2 ATP2 NADH + 2H+2 H2O::5}}
Published	07/30/2024	Glycolysis is {{c1::anaerobic::aerobic/anaerobic}}
Published	07/30/2024	How many steps does glycolysis have? {{c1::10}}
Published	07/30/2024	All of the enzymes for glycolysis are located in the {{c1::cytosol}}
Published	07/30/2024	2 stages in glycolysis (give 3 names of both){{c1::1. six-carbon stage / energy-consuming stage / investment phase (1-3)2. three-carbon stage / energy…
Published	07/30/2024	In the {{c2::six-carbon}} stages of glycolysis, ATP is used up to transform monosaccharides into {{c1::monosaccharide phosphates}}
Published	07/30/2024	Mnemonic/Retrieval cuesThe intermediates of the six-carbon stage of glycolysis are all either {{c1::glucose or fructose}} derivatives
Published	07/30/2024	Phosphorylation of glucose into G6P gives glucose a {{c1::negative}} charge, thus {{c1::decreasing}} its ability to cross the cell membrane
Published	07/30/2024	Once glucose is metabolized into {{c1::fructose 1,6-bisphosphate}}, it can enter only {{c2::glycolysis}} and no other metabolic pathways
Published	07/30/2024	Mnemonic/Retrieval CuesThe investment phase and payoff phase of glycolysis have {{c1::3::n}} and {{c1::7::n}} steps respectively
Published	07/30/2024	Mnemonic/Retrieval cuesThe intermediates of the three-carbon stage of glycolysis are all either {{c1::glycerol or acetone::2}} derivatives
Published	07/30/2024	Glyceraldehyde and glycerate are both derivatives of {{c1::glycerol}}
Published	07/30/2024	Dihydroxyacetone and pyruvate are both derivatives of {{c1::acetone}}
Published	07/30/2024	Steps in glycolysis where (non-ATP) high-energy phosphate compounds are formed{{c1::Step 6 (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase)Step 9 (enolase):…
Published	07/30/2024	Steps in glycolysis where ATP is generated{{c1::Step 7 (phosphoglycerokinase)Step 10 (pyruvate kinase)::2}}
Published	07/30/2024	A high-energy phosphate group is produced when a phosphate group is attached to a carbon atom that is also participating in a {{c1::C=C or C=O}} bond
Published	07/30/2024	In the sixth step of glycolysis, {{c1::glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate}} is first oxidized by {{c1::NAD+}} to produce {{c2::3-phosphoglycera…
Published	07/30/2024	In the sixth step of glycolysis, {{c1::3-phosphoglycerate}} is then phosphorylated by {{c1::Pi + H+}} to produce {{c2::1,3-bisphosphoglycera…
Published	07/30/2024	The high-energy O–P bond at 1,3-biphosphoglycerate is at C{{c1::1::n}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Substrate-level phosphorylation}} is the biochemical process whereby ATP is produced from ADP by hydrolysis of a {{c2::high-energy compound}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c2::Hexokinase, Phosphofructokinase-1, Enolase, and Pyruvate kinase::4 glycolysis enzymes}} require Mg2+ ion for their activity
Published	07/30/2024	The high energy O–P bonds of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate and phosphoenolpyruvate are {{c1::mixed anhydride}} bonds
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Enol}} is a compound whose –OH group is attached to a C atom involved in a {{c2::C=C double bond}}
Published	07/30/2024	Hexokinase requires {{c1::Mg2+}} ion(s) for their activity
Published	07/30/2024	Phosphofructokinase-1 requires {{c1::Mg2+}} ion(s) for their activity
Published	07/30/2024	Enolase requires {{c1::Mg2+}} ion(s) for their activity
Published	07/30/2024	Pyruvate kinase requires {{c1::Mg2+ and K+}} ion(s) for their activity
Published	07/30/2024	Steps in glycolysis where ATP is used{{c1::Step 1 (hexokinase)Step 3 (phosphofructokinase-1)::2}}
Published	07/30/2024	The entry of galactose into the glycolytic pathway involves a {{c1::4::n}}-step process of its conversion into {{c2::glucose 1-phosphate}} which is fu…
Published	07/30/2024	The entry of fructose into the glycolytic pathway involves its conversion into {{c2::fructose 1-phosphate}} which is further cleaved to {{c3::dih…
Published	07/30/2024	To enter the glycolytic pathway, galactose and fructose are processed by the {{c1::liver}}
Published	07/30/2024	Which steps of glycolysis are its control points?{{c1::Step 1 (hexokinase)Step 3 (phosphofructokinase-1)Step 10 (pyruvate kinase)::3}}
Published	07/30/2024	Which glycolytic enzyme are allosteric?{{c1::Phosphofructokinase-1Pyruvate kinase::2}}
Published	07/30/2024	Inhibition of {{c2::phosphofructokinase-1}} increases the concentration of {{c1::glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	Pyruvate is converted to either {{c1::acetyl coA}}, {{c1::lactate}}, {{c1::ethanol}}, or {{c1::oxaloacetate}}
Published	07/30/2024	Under {{c1::aerobic}} conditions, pyruvate is converted into {{c2::acetyl coA}} in humans, animals, and microorganisms
Published	07/30/2024	Under {{c1::anaerobic}} conditions, pyruvate is converted into {{c2::lactate}} in humans, animals, and microorganisms
Published	07/30/2024	Under {{c1::anaerobic}} conditions, pyruvate is converted into {{c2::ethanol}} in some microorganims only
Published	07/30/2024	Produced pyruvate is oxidized to regenerate {{c1::NAD+ (from produced NADH)}} to continue glycolysis
Published	07/30/2024	The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is catalyzed by the enzyme {{c1::pyruvate dehydrogenase complex}}
Published	07/30/2024	Pyruvate is {{c1::oxidized and decarboxylated::reaction}} into acetyl coA via the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
Published	07/30/2024	One molecule of glucose converted into two molecules of acetyl CoA produces a net result of{{c1::2 acetyl CoA2 ATP4 NADH4 H+2 H2O2 CO2::n 6 different …
Published	07/30/2024	Which intermediate of glycolysis can cross the mitochondrial membranes?{{c1::Pyruvate only}}*bonus: why?
Published	07/30/2024	The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA via pyruvate dehydrogenase takes place in the {{c1::mitochondrial matrix}}
Published	07/30/2024	In states of {{c2::excess}} dietary {{c3::carbohydrates}}, high levels of produced acetyl CoA is diverted to {{c1::fatty acid biosynthesis}} inst…
Published	07/30/2024	ETC regenerates {{c1::NAD+}} to continue glycolysis, pyruvate–acetyl CoA conversion, and the citric acid cycle
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Fermentation}} is a biochemical process by which {{c2::NADH}} is oxidized to {{c2::NAD+}} without the need for oxygen.
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::decreased}} activity rate of ETC results in {{c2::increased}} concentration of NADH
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::decreased}} activity rate of ETC results in {{c2::decreased}} concentration of NAD+
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Low}} levels of NAD+ {{c2::slows down}} the rate of glycolysis
Published	07/30/2024	Steps in glycolysis that require NAD+ (produces NADH){{c1::Step 6 (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase)}}
Published	07/30/2024	One molecule of glucose converted into two molecules of lactate produces a net result of{{c1::2 lactate2 ATP2 H2O::3}}
Published	07/30/2024	Red blood cells always process pyruvate into {{c1::lactate}}
Published	07/30/2024	Pyruvate is reduced to lactate via the enzyme {{c1::lactate dehydrogenase}}
Published	07/30/2024	Lactate, glycerate, and pyruvate are monohydroxy-, dihydroxy-, and keto-derivatives of {{c1::propionate}} respectively
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Ethanol fermentation}} is the enzymatic anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to ethanol and carbon dioxide
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Lactate fermentation}} is the enzymatic anaerobic reduction of pyruvate to lactate
Published	07/30/2024	In lactate fermentation, pyruvate is {{c1::reduced}} to lactate
Published	07/30/2024	In ethanol fermentation, pyruvate is {{c1::decarboxylated}} to {{c3::acetaldehyde}} which is further {{c2::reduced}} into ethanol
Published	07/30/2024	Pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde via the enzyme {{c1::pyruvate decarboxylase}}
Published	07/30/2024	Acetaldehyde (e.g. from pyruvate) is reduced to ethanol via the enzyme {{c1::alcohol dehydrogenase}}
Published	07/30/2024	One molecule of glucose converted into ethanol produces a net result of{{c1::2 ethanol2 ATP2 H2O2 CO2::4}}
Published	07/30/2024	0. glucose::starting substance1. glucose 6-phosphate2. fructose 6-phosphate3. fructose 1,6-bisphosphate4. dihydroxyacetone phosphate5. glyceraldehyde …
Published	07/30/2024	1. Phosphorylation by ATP (hexokinase)::step 12. Isomerization (phosphoglucoisomerase)::step 23. Phosphorylation by ATP (phosphofructokinase-1)::step …
Published	07/30/2024	The {{c1::enzymes of glycolysis (and steps)}} can be remembered by the mnemonic:"High Profile People Act Too Glamorously, Picture Posing Every Place"
Published	07/30/2024	The {{c1::intermediates of glyclolysis}} can be remembered by the mnemonic:"Goodness Gracious Father Franklin! DruGged Boys Pickled Peter Piper's…
Published	07/30/2024	The mitochondria is {{c1::impermeable}} to NADH and NAD+
Published	07/30/2024	NADH produced from glycolysis does not directly particiate in the ETC because...{{c1::It's produced in the cytosol}}
Published	07/30/2024	Dihydroxyacetone phosphate-glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle and malate-asparte shuttle shuttles the {{c1::electrons}} from NADH to and from the mitochondr…
Published	07/30/2024	Why does shuttling via the dihydroxyacetone phosphate-glycerol 3-phosphate produce 2 less ATP from one glucose?{{c1::Because cytosolic NADH is essenti…
Published	07/30/2024	In shuttling the e- of cytosolic NADH, {{c1::NADH}} {{c3::reduces}} {{c1::dihydroxyacetone phosphate}} in the {{c4::cytosol}} to produce {{c…
Published	07/30/2024	In shuttling the e- of cytosolic NADH, {{c1::FAD}} oxidizes {{c1::glycerol 3-phosphate}} in the {{c3::mitochondrial intermembrane space}} to…
Published	07/30/2024	In {{c3::caridiac muscle}} and {{c3::hepatic}} cells, aerobic metabolism of glucose produces 32 net ATP via the malate-aspartate shuttle
Published	07/30/2024	In {{c3::skeletal muscle}} and {{c3::nerve}} cells, aerobic metabolism of glucose produces 30 net ATP via the glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle
Published	07/30/2024	The complete metabolism of glucose into molecules of CO2 produces a net result of?{{c1::30 or 32 ATP6 H2O6 CO2}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the first step of glycolysis, {{c1::glucose}} is phosphorylated by {{c1::ATP}} to produce {{c2::glucose 6-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the second step of glycolysis, {{c1::glucose 6-phosphate}} is isomerized to produce {{c2::fructose 6-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the third step of glycolysis, {{c1::fructose 6-phosphate}} is phosphorylated by {{c1::ATP}} to produce {{c2::fructose 1,6-…
Published	07/30/2024	In the fourth step of glycolysis, {{c1::fructose 1,6-bisphosphate}} is cleaved to produce {{c2::dihydroxyacetone phosphate}} and {…
Published	07/30/2024	In the fifth step of glycolysis, {{c1::dihydroxyacetone phosphate}} is isomerized to produce {{c2::glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the seventh step of glycolysis, {{c1::1,3-biphosphoglycerate}} phosphorylates {{c1::ADP}} to produce {{c2::3-phosphoglycerate}}…
Published	07/30/2024	In the eighth step of glycolysis, {{c1::3-phosphoglycerate}} is isomerized to produce {{c2::2-phosphoglycerate}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the ninth step of glycolysis, {{c1::2-phosphoglycerate}} is dehydrated to produce {{c2::phosphoenolpyruvate}} and {{c2::H2O}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the tenth step of glycolysis, {{c1::phosphoenolpyruvate}} phosphorylates {{c1::ADP}} to produce {{c2::pyruvate}} and {{c2::ATP}}
Published	07/30/2024	The first step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Hexokinase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The second step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Phosphoglucoisomerase (aka phosphoglucomutase)}}
Published	07/30/2024	The third step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Phosphofructokinase-1}}
Published	07/30/2024	The fourth step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Aldolase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The fifth step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Triosephosphate isomerase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The sixth step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The seventh step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Phosphoglycerokinase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The eigth step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Phosphoglyceromutase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The ninth step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Enolase}}
Published	07/30/2024	The tenth step of the glycolysis involve what enzyme(s){{c1::Pyruvate kinase}}
Published	07/30/2024	At any given time, an adult human body (70 kg) contains {{c1::~50 g::mass}} of ATP but consumes {{c1::~65 kg::mass}} of ATP per day
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Glycogenesis}} is the metabolic pathway by which glycogen is synthesized from {{c2::glucose 6-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Glycogenolysis}} is the metabolic pathway by which {{c2::glucose 6-phosphate}} is produced from glycogen
Published	07/30/2024	In the first step of glycogenesis, {{c1::glucose 6-phosphate}} is isomerized to produce {{c2::glucose 1-phosphate}} via the enzyme {{c3::phosphoglucom…
Published	07/30/2024	In the second step of glycogenesis, {{c1::glucose 1-phosphate}} is activated by {{c1::UTP}} to produce {{c2::UDP-glucose }} and {{c2::PPi}} via t…
Published	07/30/2024	In the second step of glycogenesis, UTP transfers {{c1::UMP}} to glucose 1-phosphate. The resulting PPi is further hydrolyzed to {{c2::2Pi}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the third step of glycogenesis, {{c1::UDP-glucose}} releases its {{c1::UDP}} to attach to the end of a {{c2::glycogen chain}} via the enzyme {…
Published	07/30/2024	Glycogenesis requires {{c1::2::n}} ATP to add a single glucose unit to a growing glycogen chain*bonus: what steps
Published	07/30/2024	The UDP released by UDP-glucose upon attachment to glycogen is phosphorylated by {{c1::ATP}} to regerenate UTP
Published	07/30/2024	In the first step of glycogenolysis, {{c1::glycogen}} is cleaved by {{c1::Pi}} to produce {{c2::glycogen with one fewer glucose unit}} and {…
Published	07/30/2024	In the second step of glycogenolysis, {{c1::glucose 1-phosphate}} is isomerized to produce by {{c2::glucose 6-phosphate}} via the enzyme {{c3::ph…
Published	07/30/2024	Glycogenolysis equires {{c1::no::n}} ATP to remove a single glucose unit from a glycogen chain
Published	07/30/2024	In {{c1::muscle}} and {{c1::brain}} cells, G6P produced via glycogenolysis directly enters the glycolytic pathway
Published	07/30/2024	Only in {{c1::liver}} cells, G6P produced via glycogenolysis is dephosphorylated to produce {{c2::glucose}} and {{c2::Pi}} via the enzyme {{c3::glucos…
Published	07/30/2024	Unlike muscle and brain cells, liver cells can raise blood glucose via glycogenolysis because of the presence of {{c1::glucose 6-phosphatase}}
Published	07/30/2024	When glycogen rather than glucose is used as the starting substance for glycolysis, there is {{c1::one more}} ATP produced in its catabolism
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Gluconeogenesis}} is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from {{c2::noncarbohydrate}} materials
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Pyruvate}} is considered to be the initial substrate for gluconeogenesis
Published	07/30/2024	Glucose can be synthesized from {{c1::lactate}} from hard-working muscles and RBCs (gluconeogenesis)
Published	07/30/2024	Glucose can be synthesized from {{c1::glycerol}} from triacylglycerol hydrolysis (gluconeogenesis)
Published	07/30/2024	Glucose can be synthesized from {{c1::certain amino acids}} from dietary protein hydrolysis or muscles during starvation (gluconeogenesis)
Published	07/30/2024	In the first step of gluconeogenesis, {{c1::pyruvate}} is first converted by {{c1::ATP and CO2}} into {{c2::oxaloacetate}} via the enzyme {{c3::pyruva…
Published	07/30/2024	In the second step of gluconeogenesis, {{c1::oxaloacetate}} is converted by {{c1::GTP}} into {{c2::phosphoenolpyruvate}} via the enzyme {{c3::pho…
Published	07/30/2024	In the fifth step of gluconeogenesis, {{c1::3-phosphoglycerate}} is phosphorylated by {{c1::ATP}} to produce {{c2::1,3-bisphosphoglycerate}} via the e…
Published	07/30/2024	In the ninth step of gluconeogenesis, {{c1::fructose 1,6-bisphosphate}} is dephosphorylated to produce {{c2::fructose 6-phosphate}} via the enzym…
Published	07/30/2024	How many steps does gluconeogenesis have? {{c1::11}}
Published	07/30/2024	Steps in gluconeogenesis where ATP is used{{c1::Step 1 (pyruvate carboxylase)Step 5 (phosphoenolpyruvate)::2}}
Published	07/30/2024	Steps in gluconeogenesis where GTP is used{{c1::Step 2 (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase)}}
Published	07/30/2024	Gluconeogenesis produces a net result of{{c1::1 glucose4 ADP2 GDP6 Pi2 NAD+::5}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the {{c1::liver}}, {{c2::lactate}} is oxidized by {{c2::NAD+}} to produce {{c3::pyruvate}} and {{c3::NADH}} via the enzyme {{c4::lactate dehyd…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Cori cycle}} is a cyclic biochemical process in which glucose is converted to {{c2::lactate}} in {{c3::muscle tissue}} which is reconverted to g…
Published	07/30/2024	The cori cycle produces a net result of{{c1::2 ADP2 GDP::dinucleotide phosphates}}
Published	07/30/2024	The cori cycle consists of {{c1::gluconeogenesis}} ({{c2::-6::n}} ATP equivalents) in the liver and {{c1::glycolysis → lactate fermentation}} ({{c2::+…
Published	07/30/2024	What is the additional intermediate in gluconeogenesis as compared to glycolysis?{{c1::oxaloacetate}}
Published	07/30/2024	If energy rather than glucose is needed, then {{c1::oxaloacetate}} formed via pyruvate carboxylase can go directly into the {{c2::citric acid cycle}} …
Published	07/30/2024	Glucose metabolism: no answer {{c1:::)}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Pentose phosphate pathway or Hexose monophosphate shunt}} is the metabolic pathway by which{{c2::glucose 6-phosphate}} is processed to produce {…
Published	07/30/2024	The pentose phosphate pathway (HMP shunt) is signicant in cells of {{c1::fatty tissue}}, {{c1::liver}}, {{c1::mammary glands}}, and {{c1::adrenal cort…
Published	07/30/2024	Whereas NADH functions in redox reactions, {{c1::NADPH}} is mainly involved in the biosynthesis of {{c2::lipids}} and {{c2::nucleic acids}}
Published	07/30/2024	The pentose phosphate pathway (HMP shunt) has two stages{{c1::1. Oxidative stage2. Non-oxidative stage}}
Published	07/30/2024	In the oxidative stage of the HMP shunt, a 3-step process converts {{c1::glucose 6-phosphate}} into {{c2::ribulose 5-phosphate}}, forming {{c3::2 NADP…
Published	07/30/2024	In the first step of the non-oxidative stage of the HMP, {{c1::ribulose 5-phosphate}} via the enzyme {{c2::phosphopentose isomerase}} is converted int…
Published	07/30/2024	The pentose phosphate pathway (Hexose monophosphate shunt) produces a net result of{{c1::6 NADPH + 6 H+2 fructose 6-phosphate1 glyceraldehyde 3-phosph…
Published	07/30/2024	When {{c1::ATP}} demand is high, the HMP shunt preferentially produces {{c2::its end products which enter glyclolysis}}
Published	07/30/2024	When {{c1::NADPH}} demand is high, the HMP shunt preferentially produces {{c2::glucose 6-phosphate, its starting substrate}}
Published	07/30/2024	When {{c1::nucleic acid and coenzyme production}} demand is high, the HMP shunt preferentially produces {{c2::ribose 5-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	The major purpose of the {{c1::oxidative}} stage of the HMP shunt is the production of {{c2::NADPH}}
Published	07/30/2024	The major purpose of the {{c1::non-oxidative}} stage of the HMP shunt is the production of {{c2::ribose 5-phosphate}}
Published	07/30/2024	The HMP shunt when run to its completion produces 2 glycolysis intermediates: {{c1::glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate}} and {{c1::2 fructose 6-phos…
Published	07/30/2024	Epinephrine increase glycogenolysis mainly in {{c1::muscle}} cells
Published	07/30/2024	B vitamins essential in carbohydrate metabolsim{{c1::Thiamine (TPP)Panthothenic acid (CoA–SH)Riboflavin (FAD)Niacin (NAD+)Biotin (pyruvate carboxylase…
Published	07/30/2024	vitamin {{c1::B7 (biotin)}} is a cofactor to the gluconeogenesis enzyme: {{c2::pyruvate carboxylase}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Glycogenin}} is the starting point of glycogenesis and is at the core of each glycogen unit
Published	07/30/2024	In glycogenesis, glucose attaches to the {{c1::tyrosine}} residue of the glycogen primer, glycogenin
Published	07/30/2024	Trahalose is a disaccharide of 2 glucose units linked by a {{c1::α(1→1)}} O-glycosidic linkage
Published	07/30/2024	90% of gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver while the remaining 10% occurs in the {{c1::kidneys}}
Published	07/30/2024	NADPH keeps glutathione in its {{c1::reduced}} state
Published	07/30/2024	Whereas {{c1::ribulose::ribose/ribulose}} is a {{c2::ketose}}, {{c1::ribose::ribose/ribulose}} is an {{c2::aldose}}
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