Notes in ✧ Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

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Status	Last Update	Fields
Published	01/14/2024	What percent of total Ca2+ in the blood is bound to plasma protein?{{c1::40%}}
Published	01/14/2024	What percent of total Ca2+ in the blood is ultrafilterable?{{c1::60%}}
Published	01/14/2024	What percent of total Ca2+ in the blood exists in an ionized form (i.e. as Ca2+)?{{c1::45-50%}}
Published	01/14/2024	What percent of total Ca2+ in the blood is complexed to anions (e.g. sulfate, citrate, phosphate)?{{c1::10-15%}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the only form of biologically active Ca2+? {{c1::Free, ionized Ca2+}}
Published	01/14/2024	Hyperreflexia, spontaneous twitching, muscle cramping, tingling, and numbness are signs of which calcium imbalance? {{c1::Hypocalcemia}}
Published	01/14/2024	The {{c3::Chvostek}} sign is {{c2::twitching of the facial muscles}} elicited by tapping on the facial nerve; it is an indicator of {{c1::hypocalcemia…
Published	01/14/2024	The {{c3::Trousseau}} sign is {{c1::carpopedal spasm}} upon inflation of a blood pressure cuff; it is an indicator of {{c2::hypocalcemia}}
Published	01/14/2024	Why does hypocalcemia cause symptoms such as tingling/numbness and twitching/cramping?{{c1::Decreased extracellular Ca2+ decreases the threshold poten…
Published	01/14/2024	Constipation, polyuria, polydipsia, lethargy, and hyporeflexia are signs of which calcium imbalance? {{c1::Hypercalcemia}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the effect of acidemia on free ionized Ca2+ concentration?{{c1::Increased}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the effect of alkalemia on free ionized Ca2+ concentration?{{c1::Decreased}}
Published	01/14/2024	Which three organ systems are involved in Ca2+ homeostasis? {{c1::Bone, kidney, and intestine}}
Published	01/14/2024	Which three hormones are involved in Ca2+ homeostasis?{{c1::Parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and vitamin D (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)}}
Published	01/14/2024	What demographic is associated with positive Ca2+ balance?{{c1::Growing children}}
Published	01/14/2024	What demographic is associated with negative Ca2+ balance?{{c1::Women during pregnancy or lactation}}
Published	01/14/2024	Parathyroid hormone is synthesized and secreted by the {{c1::chief}} cells of the parathyroid glands
Published	01/14/2024	Parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion is regulated by plasma {{c1::Ca2+}} concentration
Published	01/14/2024	When plasma Ca2+ concentrations {{c1::decrease}}, parathyroid hormone secretion is {{c2::increased}} (and vice versa)
Published	01/14/2024	Secretion of PTH is controlled by extracellular (serum) Ca2+ binding to {{c1::Ca2+-sensing}} receptors in the parathyroid cell membrane
Published	01/14/2024	Chronic hypocalcemia causes secondary {{c1::hyperparathyroidism}}, which is characterized by increased synthesis and storage of PTH and hyperplasia of…
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Mild decreases}} in serum Mg2+ concentration cause {{c1::increased}} PTH secretion
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Severe decreases}} in serum Mg2+ concentration cause {{c1::decreased}} PTH secretion
Published	01/14/2024	What is the effect of increased serum PO43- on PTH secretion?{{c1::Increased}}
Published	01/14/2024	The actions of PTH are coordinated to produce an increase in serum {{c1::Ca2+}} and a decrease in serum {{c1::phosphate (PO43-)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Through what secondary messenger(s) does PTH exert its actions on bone and kidney tissue?{{c1::cAMP}}
Published	01/14/2024	In bone, PTH receptors are located on {{c1::osteoblasts}}, but not on {{c1::osteoclasts}}
Published	01/14/2024	Initially and transiently, PTH causes an increase in bone {{c1::formation}} by a direct action on {{c1::osteoblasts}}
Published	01/14/2024	In bone, the long-term effect of PTH is bone {{c1::resorption}} via indirect action on {{c1::osteoclasts}}
Published	01/14/2024	The action of PTH on osteoclasts is indirect and mediated by cytokines released from {{c1::osteoblasts}}
Published	01/14/2024	Resorption of the organic matrix of bone is reflected in increased {{c1::hydroxyproline}} excretion in the urine
Published	01/14/2024	The overall effect of PTH on bone is to promote bone {{c1::resorption}}, which delivers both {{c2::Ca2+}} and {{c2::phosphate}} to extracellular fluid
Published	01/14/2024	Will the effect of PTH on bone alone increase ionized Ca2+ concentration?{{c1::No, the calcium released would complex with the released phosphate, hen…
Published	01/14/2024	PTH acts on the kidney to inhibit renal {{c1::phosphate}} reabsorption in the {{c2::proximal convoluted tubule}}, which therefore increases phosphate …
Published	01/14/2024	The cAMP generated as a result of the action of PTH on the proximal tubule is excreted in the {{c1::urine (urinary cAMP)}}
Published	01/14/2024	PTH acts on the kidney to increase renal {{c1::calcium}} reabsorption in the {{c2::distal convoluted tubule}}
Published	01/14/2024	PTH stimulates the renal enzyme {{c1::1α-hydroxylase}}, which converts 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to the active form, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (vi…
Published	01/14/2024	How does PTH increase intestinal Ca2+ absorption?{{c1::Indirectly, by stimulating production of 1,25-(OH)2D3 in the kidney}}
Published	01/14/2024	PTH Actions Summary Picture: no answer {{c1:::)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Primary hyperparathyroidism is most commonly caused by a(n) {{c1::parathyroid adenoma (which secretes excess PTH)}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Primary hyperparathyroidism}} is characterized by hypercalcemia, hypophosphatemia, and increased circulating levels of PTH
Published	01/14/2024	Patients with primary hyperparathyroidism have {{c1::increased}} Ca2+ excretion due to the high filtered load of calcium on the kidney
Published	01/14/2024	What is a possible complication of increased Ca2+ in the urine (e.g. due to primary hyperparathyroidism)? {{c1::Calcium-oxalate kidney stones}}
Published	01/14/2024	Patients with primary hyperparathyroidism have {{c1::increased}} urinary excretion of phosphate, calcium, and cAMP
Published	01/14/2024	Which parathyroid disorder is characterized by "stones, bones, groans, and psychiatric undertones"? {{c1::Primary hyperparathyroidism}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the treatment for a patient with primary hyperparathyroidism? {{c1::Parathyroidectomy}}
Published	01/14/2024	In secondary hyperparathyroidism, PTH levels are elevated secondary to {{c1::hypocalcemia (or hyperphosphatemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Hypoparathyroidism is most commonly a result of {{c1::thyroid surgery}}, or less commonly may be {{c3::autoimmune}} or {{c2::congenital}}
Published	01/14/2024	Hypoparathyroidism is characterized by decreased serum {{c1::calcium (hypocalcemia)}} and increased serum {{c1::phosphate (hyperphosphatemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a, or Albright hereditary osteodystrophy, is due to a defective {{c1::Gs}} protein in the kidney and bone, which causes…
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a}} is characterized by hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia that is not correctable by administration of exogenous…
Published	01/14/2024	What is the difference in PTH levels in hypoparathyroidism versus pseudohypoparathyroidism?{{c1::PTH levels are elevated in pseudohypoparathyroidism d…
Published	01/14/2024	Some {{c1::malignant tumors}} secrete {{c2::PTH-related peptide (PTH-rp)}}, which is structurally homologous with the PTH secreted by the parathyroid …
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy}} is due to increased {{c2::PTH-rp}} secretion and presents similarly to hyperparathyroidism (e.g. hypercalc…
Published	01/14/2024	Humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy may be treated with {{c1::zoledronate (a bisphosphonate)}} or {{c1::pamidronate}}, which inhibits bone r…
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (FHH)}} is caused by inactivating mutations of the {{c1::Ca2+-sensing receptors}} that regulate PTH secreti…
Published	01/14/2024	What is the inheritance of familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (FHH)? {{c1::Autosomal dominant}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the effect of chronic renal failure on serum phosphate levels?{{c1::Increased}}
Published	01/14/2024	In chronic renal failure, increased serum phosphate complexes Ca2+ and leads to decreased {{c1::free, ionized Ca2+}}
Published	01/14/2024	In chronic renal failure, decreased production of the active form of vitamin {{c1::D, (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)}} by the kidney contributes to d…
Published	01/14/2024	The decreased ionized Ca2+ in chronic renal failure causes {{c1::secondary hyperparathyroidism}}, which is characterized by increased levels of PTH
Published	01/14/2024	In {{c2::CKD}}, the combination of elevated PTH and decreased 1,25-(OH)2D3 produces {{c1::renal osteodystrophy}}, in which there is increased bone res…
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Calcitonin}} is secreted by the {{c1::parafollicular cells (C cells)}} of the thyroid gland
Published	01/14/2024	The major stimulus for calcitonin secretion is {{c1::hypercalcemia}}
Published	01/14/2024	The major function of calcitonin is to inhibit bone {{c1::resorption}}, thus decreasing the plasma Ca2+ concentration
Published	01/14/2024	Calcitonin may be used to treat which calcium imbalance? {{c1::Hypercalcemia}}
Published	01/14/2024	One external source of vitamin D (cholecalciferol) in the body is through {{c1::ingestion/diet}}
Published	01/14/2024	One source of vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is through synthesis from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the presence of {{c1::UV light}}
Published	01/14/2024	Cholecalciferol is converted to {{c1::25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH-cholecalciferol)}} in the {{c2::liver}}; this compound is chemically {{c3::inac…
Published	01/14/2024	In the {{c4::kidney}}, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol may be hydroxylated by the enzyme {{c1::1α-hydroxylase}} to produce {{c2::1,25-dihydroxycholecalcifer…
Published	01/14/2024	In the kidney, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol may be hydroxylated to produce {{c1::24,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol}}; this compound is chemically {{c2::inac…
Published	01/14/2024	The activity of the renal enzyme 1α-hydroxylase is increased with {{c1::decreased}} serum Ca2+ concentration
Published	01/14/2024	The activity of the renal enzyme 1α-hydroxylase is increased with {{c1::increased}} PTH levels
Published	01/14/2024	The activity of the renal enzyme 1α-hydroxylase is increased with {{c1::decreased}} serum phosphate concentration
Published	01/14/2024	The role of vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is to increase both {{c2::Ca2+}} and {{c2::phosphate}} plasma concentrations to promote {{c1::bone minera…
Published	01/14/2024	1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol increases {{c1::intestinal}} absorption of Ca2+ through synthesis of calbindin D-28K
Published	01/14/2024	In addition to calcium, 1,25-(OH)2 D3 also increases the intestinal absorption of {{c1::phosphate (PO43-)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Similar to its action on the intestines, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol increases the {{c1::renal}} reabsorption of Ca2+ and phosphate
Published	01/14/2024	In bone, 1,25-(OH)2 D3 acts syngergistically with PTH to stimulate {{c1::osteoclast}} activity and bone {{c1::resorption}}
Published	01/14/2024	What effect does 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol have on its own production?{{c1::Inhibits it (negative feedback)}}
Published	01/14/2024	In children, vitamin D deficiency causes {{c1::rickets}}
Published	01/14/2024	In adults, vitamin D deficiency causes {{c1::osteomalacia}}
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin D resistance most commonly occurs due to {{c1::chronic renal failure}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the serum calcium level in primary hyperparathyroidism?{{c1::Increased (due to increased PTH)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Primary hyperparathyroidism may lead to CNS disturbances, such as {{c1::depression}} and seizures
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Primary hyperparathyroidism}} often presents with increased levels of urinary {{c1::cAMP}} due to the activation of Gs proteins when PTH binds i…
Published	01/14/2024	Hyperparathyroidism often presents with increased levels of serum {{c1::ALP}} due to increased osteoblast activity
Published	01/14/2024	What is the serum level of calcium in primary hyperparathyroidism?{{c1::Increased (hypercalcemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the serum level of calcium in secondary hyperparathyroidism?{{c1::Decreased (hypocalcemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the most common cause of secondary hyperparathyroidism?{{c1::Chronic renal failure}}
Published	01/14/2024	How does renal insufficiency cause secondary hyperparathyroidism? (sorry) {{c1:: 1. Renal insufficiency causes decreased phosphate excretion and thus …
Published	01/14/2024	After PTH binds to {{c1::osteoblasts}}, RANK-L is secreted which binds to RANK on {{c1::osteoclasts}}, increasing bone resorption
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia}} presents with mild hypercalcemia and hypocalciuria with normal or increased PTH levels
Published	01/14/2024	Chronic exposure of PTH stimulates osteoblasts to express {{c1::RANKL}}, which binds to {{c1::RANK}} on osteoclast surfaces to increase activity
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Calcitonin}} is a peptide hormone that directly inhibits osteoclasts, causing decreased bone resorption
Published	01/14/2024	Calcitonin promotes Ca2+ {{c1::excretion}} by the kidney
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin D {{c1::resistance}} occurs due to the absence of the renal enzyme {{c2::1α-hydroxylase}}, thus preventing activation of vitamin D
Published	01/14/2024	What percent of plasma Ca2+ is filtered across glomerular capillaries?{{c1::60% (40% bound to plasma proteins)}}
Published	01/14/2024	The bulk of Ca2+ reabsorption occurs in the {{c1::proximal convoluted tubule}} (67%)
Published	01/14/2024	The {{c1::thick ascending limb (loop of Henle)}} is responsible for approximately 25% of Ca2+ reabsorption
Published	01/14/2024	Ca2+ is reabsorbed in the thick ascending limb (on Henle) via a(n) {{c1::paracellular}} route
Published	01/14/2024	What drives Ca2+ reabsorption in the thick ascending limb (of Henle)?{{c1::Lumen-positive potential difference}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Loop}} diuretics indirectly inhibit {{c1::Ca2+}} and {{c1::Mg2+}} reabsorption in the thick ascending limb (loop of Henle)
Published	01/14/2024	What effect do loop diuretics have on serum Ca2+ levels? {{c1::Decreased}}
Published	01/14/2024	The {{c1::distal tubule}} is responsible for approximately 8% of Ca2+ reabsorption
Published	01/14/2024	What is the site of regulation for Ca2+ reabsorption? {{c1::Distal tubule}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Parathyroid}} hormone stimulates {{c2::Ca2+-Na+}} exchange in the basolateral membrane of distal tubule cells
Published	01/14/2024	PTH action causes {{c1::hypo}}-calciuria
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Thiazide}} diuretics stimulate {{c1::Ca2+}} reabsorption in the distal tubule
Published	01/14/2024	What effect do thiazide diuretics have on serum Ca2+ levels? {{c1::Increased}}
Published	01/14/2024	How do levels of parathyroid hormone change in chronic renal disease? {{c1::Increased (secondary hyperparathyroidism)}}
Published	01/14/2024	25-OH vitamin D3 is converted to 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 in cells of the {{c1::PCT}} of the nephron
Published	01/14/2024	What renal enzyme facilitates the conversion of 25-OH vitamin D3 to 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3?{{c1::1α-hydroxylase}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::PTH}} is a hormone that increases the production of 1,25-(OH)2 D3 via increased {{c2::1α-hydroxylase}} activity
Published	01/14/2024	Parathyroid hormone is secreted in response to decreased plasma {{c1::Ca2+}} and {{c2::1,25-(OH)2 D3}}
Published	01/14/2024	Parathyroid hormone is secreted in response to increased plasma {{c1::PO43-}}
Published	01/14/2024	Which electrolyte disturbance causes tetany, seizures, QT prolongation, twitching, and spasm? {{c1::Low Ca2+ (hypocalcemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Which electrolyte disturbance causes stones, bones, groans, and psychiatric overtones?{{c1::High Ca2+ (hypercalcemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin {{c1::D3}}, known as {{c2::cholecalciferol}}, is the form consumed in milk, fish, plants, and formed in sun-exposed skin
Published	01/14/2024	What is the storage form of vitamin D?{{c1::25-OH D3}}
Published	01/14/2024	What is the active form of vitamin D?{{c1::1,25-(OH)2 D3}}
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin D {{c3::increases}} intestinal absorption of {{c1::calcium}} and {{c2::phosphate}}
Published	01/14/2024	At {{c2::low}} levels, vitamin D increases bone {{c1::mineralization}}
Published	01/14/2024	At {{c2::high}} levels, vitamin D increases bone {{c1::resorption}}
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin D deficiency is exacerbated by {{c1::low}} sun exposure, {{c2::pigmented}} skin, and prematurity
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin {{c3::D}} excess presents with {{c1::hyper}}-calcemia and {{c2::hyper}}-calciuria
Published	01/14/2024	What is the penetrance of achondroplasia? {{c1::100%}}
Published	01/14/2024	Low serum Ca2+ levels will {{c1::increase}} PTH levels in the blood stream
Published	01/14/2024	The parathyroid glands have {{c1::Ca2+ sensing (CaSR)}} receptors that {{c2::negatively}} regulate secretion of PTH
Published	01/14/2024	Chronic PTH exposure stimulates osteoblasts to express as well as secrete {{c1::RANKL}}
Published	01/14/2024	RANKL binds to {{c1::RANK}} on Osteoclast precursors / Osteoclast surfaces causing {{c2::activation}} of these cells
Published	01/14/2024	Intermittent PTH stimulates maturation of osteoblasts, thus {{c1::increasing}} bone formation
Published	01/14/2024	PTH increases Ca2+ {{c1::reabsorption}} by the kidney
Published	01/14/2024	PTH increases phosphate {{c1::excretion}} by the kidney
Published	01/14/2024	PTH increases production of {{c3::Calcitriol}} activity by stimulating {{c1::1-alpha-hydroxylase}} in the {{c2::kidney}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Vitamin D3}} is also known as {{c1::cholecalciferol}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c2::Vitamin D3}} is obtained via {{c1::dairy products}} and {{c1::UVB radiation}}
Published	01/14/2024	25-hydroxylase converts Vitamin D3 into {{c3::25-hydroxyvitamin D (calcidiol)}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::1-alpha-hydroxylase}} converts 25-hydroxyvitamin D (calcidiol) into {{c2::1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (aka calcitriol)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Patients who have undergone {{c1::Thyroid}} surgery can sometimes manifest with symptoms of hypoparathyroidism and hypocalcemia
Published	01/14/2024	Hypocalcemia can lead to {{c1::tetany}} and in severe cases lead to {{c2::seizures}}
Published	01/14/2024	Chronic PTH stimulates Osteoblasts to upregulate {{c1::RANKL}}
Published	01/14/2024	Bones of the {{c1::axial}} skeleton, {{c2::appendicular}} skeleton, and {{c3::base of the skull}} are formed via {{c4::endochondral}} ossification
Published	01/14/2024	In {{c1::endochondral}} ossification, a(n) {{c2::hyaline cartilage::specific}} model is first made by chondrocytes
Published	01/14/2024	In {{c1::endochondral}} ossification, osteoblasts and osteoclasts replace cartilage with a matrix of {{c2::woven}} bone and then remodel to {{c3::lame…
Published	01/14/2024	In adults, woven bone is seen {{c1::after fractures}} and in {{c2::Paget disease}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Endochondral}} ossification is defective in {{c2::achondroplasia}}
Published	01/14/2024	Bones of the {{c2::calvarium}}, {{c3::facial bones}}, and {{c4::clavicle}} are formed via {{c1::membranous}} ossification
Published	01/14/2024	In {{c3::membranous}} ossification, {{c1::woven}} bone is formed {{c4::directly, without cartilage::how?}}. It is then later remodeled to {{c2::lamell…
Published	01/14/2024	Osteo-{{c1::blasts}} build bone by secreting {{c2::collagen}}, and catalyze {{c3::mineralization}} via secretion of {{c4::ALP}}
Published	01/14/2024	Osteo-{{c3::blasts}} differentiate from {{c1::mesenchymal stem}} cells in the {{c2::periosteum}}
Published	01/14/2024	Osteoblastic activity is measured by: {{c1::ALP}}, {{c2::osteocalcin}}, and {{c3::propeptides of type I procollagen}}
Published	01/14/2024	Osteo-{{c1::clasts}} dissolve bone by secreting {{c2::H+}} and {{c3::collagenases}}
Published	01/14/2024	Osteo-{{c1::clasts}} differentiate from a fusion of {{c2::monocyte/macrophage lineage precursors}}
Published	01/14/2024	At {{c1::low, intermittent}} levels, {{c2::PTH}} exerts {{c3::anabolic}} effects on osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Published	01/14/2024	When chronically {{c1::elevated}}, {{c2::PTH}} has {{c3::catabolic}} effects on bone, known as {{c4::osteitis fibrosa cystica}}
Published	01/14/2024	{{c1::Estrogens::hormone}} {{c2::inhibit}} apoptosis in osteoblasts and {{c2::induce}} apoptosis in osteoclasts
Published	01/14/2024	Estrogens (hormone) cause {{c2::closure}} of the epiphyseal growth plate (bone structure) during {{c1::puberty}}
Published	01/14/2024	Estrogen deficiency leads to increased cycling of {{c2::bone remodeling and resorption}}, increasing risk of {{c1::osteoporosis}}
Published	01/14/2024	Vitamin {{c1::D}} deficiency is seen in patients with malabsorption, decreased sun exposure, poor diet, and chronic kidney disease
Published	01/14/2024	What is a normal total serum calcium level?~{{c1::9 mg/dL}}
Published	01/14/2024	Primary hypoparathyroidism presents with {{c1::hypo}}calcemia
Published	01/14/2024	Chronic kidney disease results in a(n) {{c1::1-alpha hydroxylase::enzyme}} deficiency
Published	01/14/2024	IV blood transfusions containing phosphate, citrate, or albumin may cause {{c1::hypo}}calcemia
Published	01/14/2024	What are the effects of severe acute pancreatitis on serum calcium levels?{{c1::Decreased (hypocalcemia)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Hypercalcemia is defined as a total serum calcium > {{c1::10.5}} mg/dL or an ionized calcium > {{c1::1.4…
Published	01/14/2024	What is the likely diagnosis in a 40-pack year smoker with symptomatic hypercalcemia (>14 mg/dL) with polyuria, constipation, nausea and …
Published	01/14/2024	Hypercalcemia of malignancy (PTHrP) is characterized by {{c1::low}} serum PTH and {{c1::high}} serum PTHrP
Published	01/14/2024	The next step for suspected milk-alkali syndrome is {{c1::serum PTH (suppressed)::test}} and {{c1::isotonic saline followed by loop diuretics::tr…
Published	01/14/2024	Osteolytic bone metastases are most common where?{{c1::Areas of active hematopoiesis (vertebrae, sternum)}}
Published	01/14/2024	Malignant breast cancer and multiple myeloma may lead to {{c1::hypercalcemia}}, either through bony metastasis or PTHrP production
Published	01/14/2024	What finding differentiates familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia from primary hyperparathyroidism?{{c1::Low 24 hour urinary Ca2+&n…
Published	01/14/2024	Milk alkali syndrome is characterized by a triad of {{c1::hypercalcemia}}, {{c2::metabolic alkalosis}}, and {{c3::AKI}}
Published	01/14/2024	Heart failure, hypotension, and shock may be caused by {{c1::hypo}}calcemia
Published	01/14/2024	Hypercalcemia may cause {{c1::peptic ulcer disease}} due to excessive calcium stimulating gastrin release in the stomach
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