Notes in 1- Proteins & Enzymes

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Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Proteins}} are macromolecules consisting of many amino acids arranged in a particular structure that enables it to carry out a specific str…
Published	02/10/2024	DNA is a blueprint and an instruction manual for making different proteins.{{c1::Transcription}} - a process in which DNA is used to make messenger RN…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::DNA}} is composed of the nucleotides:Adenine - Cytosine - Guanine - Thymine{{c1::mRNA}} is composed of the nucleotides:Adenine - Cytosine - Guan…
Published	02/10/2024	All Amino Acids contain an {{c1::amine (–NH2)}} and {{c1::carboxyl (–COOH)}} functional groups, and an 'R' group which is a s…
Published	02/10/2024	There are {{c1::20}} naturally occuring amino acids in the Genetic code.The Genetic code is redundant, meaning that there is more than one codon for a…
Published	02/10/2024	Amino acids are affected by the pH levels whether an environment is acidic or alkalinic or neutral.Describe how the pH affects them.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Aliphatic}} amino acids have an 'R' group that consists of hydrocarbon chains or simply a hydrogen.The longer the hydrocarbon chain the more hyd…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Aromatic}} are amino acids have an 'R' group that contains a hydrocarbon ring
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Phenylketonuria (PKU)}} is an inborn metabolic error that causes abnormal levels of an aromatic amino acid called Phenylalanine, which can cause…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Sulphur-containing}} amino acids contain sulphur that allows for disulfide bridges, which are covalent sulphur-sulphur bonds between two compoun…
Published	02/10/2024	Acidic Amino Acids
Published	02/10/2024	Basic Amino Acids
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Polar}} amino acids which can carry a charge at the end of the 'R' group.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Proline}} is a miscellaneous amino acid which doesn't fit in any of the classifications of amino acids, but has an unusual ring shape that gives…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::primary structure}} of a protein is the sequence in which amino acid monomers are covalently bonded together to form a polypeptide chai…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::secondary structure}} of a protein is the 3D spatial arrangement of amino acids located near each other in the polypeptide chain.It relies o…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Alpha Helix}} is a secondary structure that is made up of polypeptide chains, which looks like a coil.{{c1::Beta Sheet}} is a secondary structur…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::tertiary structure}} of a protein results when functional groups of 'R' chains of amino acids in the polypeptide chain interact with one ano…
Published	02/10/2024	Aquaporin is a channel used to allow water to move easily into the cell.So we would expect it to have polar, hydrophilic 'R' groups to reduce its {{c1…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::quaternary structure}} of a protein is where there are several polypeptide interactions.e.g. haemoglobin, which contains four highly-folded …
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the hierarchal structure of proteins from primary to quaternary.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Denaturation}} is the process through which the biological functionality of a protein is lost, when the bonds and interactions are disrupted and…
Published	02/10/2024	Describe some functions of proteins
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Post or Co-Translational modification}} of a tertiary structured proteins, where additional modification occurs to a them, e.g. adding macr…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Protein Glycosylation}} is a reaction in which a carbohydrate, usually an oligosaccharide, is attached to a protein, which can be a&nb…
Published	02/10/2024	How is Glycoprotein HbA1c used to detect Diabetes Milletus ?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lipoproteins}} are one of the conjugated proteins made up of a combination of lipid and protein.They are used to facilitate the transport of hyd…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Metalloproteins}} are one of the conjugate proteins that are formed from a combination of protein molecules with metal ions in their structures …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Sickle cell anaemia}} is an inherited blood disorder where a single nucleotide substitution leads to a pathological phenotype by changing the ex…
Published	02/10/2024	Classification of Proteins in terms of their functions:1. {{c1::Globular}} Proteins• Storage - Enzymes - Hormones - Transporters - Structural• e.g. Im…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH)}} is a genetic disorder characterized by high cholesterol levels, especially of LDL (low-density lipopro…
Published	02/10/2024	An {{c1::enzyme}} is a protein molecule that catalyses chemical reactions without itself being destroyed or altered.
Published	02/10/2024	Biological Catalysts are different from Chemical Catalysts because they:[1] Catalyse {{c1::high}} reaction rates[2] Have a great reaction {{c1::specif…
Published	02/10/2024	Enzyme nomenclature (6 types that end in -ase & name corresponds to function)
Published	02/10/2024	Name the 6 classes of enzymes (if you want...)
Published	02/10/2024	A reactant in a catalysed reaction that the enzymes acts upon is known as a {{c1::Substrate}}
Published	02/10/2024	The part of the enzyme that binds the substrate to form the enzyme-substrate complex is called the {{c1::Active Site}}
Published	02/10/2024	The substance that is produced by the enzyme-catalysed conversion of a substrate is known as a {{c1::Product}}
Published	02/10/2024	A {{c1::cofactor}} is a non-protein chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's activity as a catalyst, they can be seen as hel…
Published	02/10/2024	Heat-stable substances that can aid enzyme reactions by loosely binding to their active site e.g. FAD from riboflavin are known as {{c1::coenzymes}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Isoenzymes}} are enzymes that catalyse the same reaction but vary in structure and other biochemical properties
Published	02/10/2024	Basic enzyme-substrate reaction:
Published	02/10/2024	Explain a basic enzyme-substrate reaction
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Activation energy}} is the energy needed for the reaction to proceed and make products.The enzyme's function is to increase the rate of the reac…
Published	02/10/2024	How do enzymes lower the activation energy?1. {{c1::Entropy reduction}} - Enzymes “force” the substrate(s) to be correctly orientated by binding them …
Published	02/10/2024	Explain the Michaelis-Menten Plot and Equation
Published	02/10/2024	What does the Km and the Vmax tell us in the Michaelis-Menten Equation?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lineweaver-Burk plot}} is a graphical method for the analysis of Michaelis-Menten equation.X intercept is the {{c1::-1/Km}} while the Y int…
Published	02/10/2024	What are the variables that can affect enzyme reactions? and How?- {{c1::Enzyme concentration}}- {{c1::Substrate concentration}}- {{c1::Temperature}}-…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Competitive Inhibition}} is when an inhibitor binds to the active site of the enzyme and prevents the substrate from binding there.In the presen…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Non-Competitive Inhibition}} is when an inhibitor binds to a secondary site on the enzyme, changing the shape of the active site and preventing …
Published	02/10/2024	Competitive Inhibitor vs Non-Competitive Inhibitor.What's the difference?
Published	02/10/2024	Why is enzyme activity measured in a clinical setting?
Published	02/10/2024	What factors can influence enzyme activity in samples?
Published	02/10/2024	The release of enzymes from cells may be triggered by a number of processes:• {{c1::Hypoxia}} – loss of oxygen supply due to occlusion, or inadeq…
Published	02/10/2024	Tissue sources of some serum enzymes: (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	How do we analyse enzymes in the lab?
Published	02/10/2024	What are the problems with enzyme measurement?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)}} is a hydrolase class enzyme present in the body as an {{c2::isoenzyme}} i.e. it catalyses the same reaction but var…
Published	02/10/2024	Enzymes can be used clinically in numerous scenarios to: (No need to memorize examples)- Detect Tissue damagee.g. detecting the levels of Creatine Kin…
Published	02/10/2024	How can enzymes be used in clinical diagnosis?
Published	02/10/2024	Enzymes can be regulated by other molecules, which either be:1- {{c1::Activators}} - molecules that increase the activity of an enzyme2- {{c1::Inhibit…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Allosteric regulation}} is any form of regulation where the regulatory molecule (an activator or inhibitor) binds to an enzyme in a region other…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Covalently-modified enzymes}} are enzymes that have been modified through processes that involve forming or breaking covalent bonds, which usual…
Published	02/10/2024	Allosterically-regulated enzymes vs Covalently modified enzymes.What's the difference?
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