Notes in 01AdaptationInjuryDeath

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Published	07/30/2024	Two features consistently seen in reversibly injured cells: {{c1::generalized swelling of the cell (and its organelles) and steatosis (fatty change)}}
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Enlarged nucleus1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Fragmentation into nucleosome-size fragments1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::B}}
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Plasma membrane disruption1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Enzymatic digestion1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Frequent adjacent inflammation1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}Specific substances that cause inflammation are called {{c2::damage-associated mole…
Published	07/30/2024	The earliest manifestation of almost all forms of cell injury is {{c1::cellular swelling}}
Published	07/30/2024	Accumulation of “{{c1::myelin figures}}” in the cytosol composed of phospholipids derived from damaged cellular membranes following reversible cell in…
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Mitochondrial damage w/ depletion of ATP and lysosomal and plasma membranes rupture1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Protein denaturation, leaking of cellular contents, enzymatic digestion1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	Cardiac-specific troponins can be detected in the blood as early as {{c1::2 hours}} after myocardial cell necrosis
Published	07/30/2024	Steatosis/Fatty change is the abnormal accumulations of triglycerides within parenchymal cells and is often seen in the {{c1::liver::organ}}. The accu…
Published	07/30/2024	In light microscopy of cells with necrosis, {{c1::eosinophilia::pattern of non-lethal injury}} may be seen in the cytoplasm (pink) due to {{c2::↓ cyto…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Xanthomas}} - Tumorous masses produced by clusters of foamy cells found in the subepithelial connective tissue of the skin and in tendons
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Cholesterolosis}} - Focal accumulations of cholesterol-laden macrophages in the lamina propria of the gallbladder
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Niemann-Pick disease type C}} - Lysosomal storage disease caused by mutations affecting an enzyme involved in cholesterol trafficking, resu…
Published	07/30/2024	In the active synthesis of immunoglobulins, excessive amounts of proteins may accumulate in the ER producing large, homogenous eosinophilic inclusions…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Hyaline}} - An alteration within cells or in the extracellular space that gives a homogeneous, glassy, pink appearance in routine histologic sec…
Published	07/30/2024	Dead cells may be replaced by large whorled phospholipid precipitates called {{c1::myelin figures}}, which are either phagocytosed by other cells or f…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Carbon}} is the most common exogenous pigment.
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Karyolysis}} - Nuclear change wherein the basophilia of the chromatin may fade
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Karyorrhexis}} - Pyknotic nucleus undergoes fragmentation
Published	07/30/2024	Liquefactive necrosis is mostly seen in {{c1::focal bacterial and fungal infections and the brain}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Pyknosis}} - Nuclear change wherein there is nuclear shrinkage and increased basophilia
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Lipofuscin}} is an insoluble endogenous pigment and is a sign of free radical injury and lipid peroxidation.
Published	07/30/2024	Two phenomena that consistently characterize the "point of no return" or irreversibility are... {{c1::1. inability to reverse mitochondrial dysfunctio…
Published	07/30/2024	3 Important Features of {{c1::Coagulative}} Necrosis:{{c2::Ghost outlinesAnucleate cells due to karyolysisInflammatory stromal response}}
Published	07/30/2024	Coagulative necrosis has a {{c1::firm::firm/soft}} texture
Published	07/30/2024	Ultimately, the necrotic cells in coagulative necrosis are broken down by {{c1::lysosomal enzymes of infiltrating leukocytes}}
Published	07/30/2024	A localized area of coagulative necrosis is called an {{c1::infarct}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Hemosiderin}} is a golden yellow-to-brown, granular pigment that is formed by aggregates of ferritin micelles.
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Liquefactive}} necrosis - characterized by digestion of the dead cells, resulting in transformation of the tissue into a viscous liquid and…
Published	07/30/2024	Liquefactive necrosis usually color {{c1::creamy yellow (it's called pus)}}
Published	07/30/2024	Gangrenous necrosis usually occurs in {{c1::the limbs or lower legs}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Gangrenous}} necrosis - body part that has lost its blood supply and has undergone necrosis involving multiple tissue planes
Published	07/30/2024	In light microscopy of cells with {{c2::caseous}} necrosis, {{c1::granulomas}} may be seen where the necrotic area appears as a structureless collecti…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Fat}} necrosis - Results from the release of activated pancreatic lipases into the substance of the pancreas and the peritoneal cavity
Published	07/30/2024	In light microscopy of cells with {{c2::fat}} necrosis, {{c1::necrotic fat cells, and basophilic calcium deposits}} may be seen
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Fibrinoid}} necrosis - When complexes of antigens and antibodies are deposited in the {{c2::walls of arteries}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Psammoma bodies}} are lamellated calcified structures that usually develop in papillary {{c1::thyroid}} cancer.
Published	07/30/2024	In asbestosis, calcium and iron salts gather about long slender spicules of asbestos in the lung, resulting in the formation of {{c1::asbestos bodies}…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Dystrophic}} calcification is encountered in different types of necrosis.
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Metastatic}} calcification may occur in normal tissues whenever there is hypercalcemia.
Published	07/30/2024	The three major consequences of mitochondrial damage are: {{c1::ATP depletion}}, {{c1::ROS formation}}, and {{c1::Leakage of pro-apoptotic proteins}}
Published	07/30/2024	Mitochondrial damage often results in the formation of a {{c1::mitochondrial permeability transition pore::high-conductance channel}}
Published	07/30/2024	Membrane damage is often due to an increase in these two substances: {{c1::ROS and cytoplasmic Ca}}
Published	07/30/2024	DNA damage activates {{c1::p53}}, which arrests cells in the {{c2::G1}} phase of the cell cycle and activates DNA repair mechanisms.
Published	07/30/2024	If DNA repair mechanisms fail to correct DNA damage, {{c1::p53::gene}} triggers apoptosis by the mitochondrial pathway.
Published	07/30/2024	The accumulation of Ca2+ in mitochondria results in opening of the {{c1::mitochondrial permeability transition pore and activation of deleterious …
Published	07/30/2024	The {{c1::unfolded protein response}} activates signaling pathways that reduce the load of misfolded proteins in the cell. This is caused …
Published	07/30/2024	Mechanisms that cause reperfusion injury:1. {{c1::Oxidative stress}}2. {{c1::Intracellular calcium overload}}3. {{c2::Inflammation}}4. {{c…
Published	07/30/2024	The degradation of cellular proteins in atrophy occurs mainly by the {{c1::ubiquitin-proteasome pathway::Pathway}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Vitamin A (retinoic acid)}} deficiency can induce {{c2::squamous metaplasia::cell adaptation}} in the respiratory epithelium and in …
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Apoptosis}} - Type of cell death induced by a tightly regulated suicide program in which cells destined to die activate intrinsic enzymes that d…
Published	07/30/2024	The following morphologic features, some best seen with the electron microscope, characterize cells undergoing apoptosis:1. {{c1::cell shrinkage}}2. {…
Published	07/30/2024	Apoptosis results from the activation of enzymes called {{c1::caspases}}
Published	07/30/2024	The process of apoptosis may be divided into 2 phases: {{c1::initiation and execution}}
Published	07/30/2024	Two distinct pathways of apoptosis converge on caspase activation are the {{c1::mitochondrial pathway}} and the {{c1::death receptor pathway}}
Published	07/30/2024	The {{c1::mitochondrial}} pathway is responsible for apoptosis in most physiologic and pathologic situations.
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Cytochrome c}} is essential for producing energy but when released into the cytoplasm initiates the suicide program of apoptosis
Published	07/30/2024	The release of pro-apoptotic proteins such as cytochrome c is determined by the integrity of the outer mitochondrial membrane, which is tightly contro…
Published	07/30/2024	Anti-apoptopic proteins include...{{c1::BCL2, BCL-XL, and MCL1}}They possess BH{{c1::1-4}} domains
Published	07/30/2024	[VR]1. BCL2, BCL-X, MCL12. Mitochondrial Permeability{{c1::B}}
Published	07/30/2024	Pro-apoptopic proteins include...{{c1::BAX and BAK}}They possess BH{{c1::1-3}} domains
Published	07/30/2024	Regulated apoptosis initiators include...{{c1::BAD, BIM, BID, Puma, and Noxa}}They possess BH{{c1::3}} domains
Published	07/30/2024	[VR]1. BAX and BAK2. Mitochondrial Permeability{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	[VR]1. BH3-only activation proteins2. {{c2::Pro::Anti/Pro}}-apoptopic proteins{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	[VR]1. BH3-only activation proteins2. {{c2::Anti::Anti/Pro}}-apoptopic proteins{{c1::B}}
Published	07/30/2024	FasL + Fas → {{c1::FADD}} + {{c2::inactive caspase-8}}
Published	07/30/2024	Cytochrome c + {{c1::APAF-1 (apoptosis-activating factor-1)}} → {{c2::apoptosome}} + {{c2::caspase-9}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Smac/DIABLO}} enter the cytoplasm where they bind to and neutralize cytoplasmic proteins that function as physiologic inhibitors of apoptosis (I…
Published	07/30/2024	Death receptors are members of the {{c1::tumor necrosis factor (TNF)}} receptor family
Published	07/30/2024	The best-known death receptors are the {{c1::type 1 TNF receptor (TNFR1) and Fas (CD95)::2}}
Published	07/30/2024	FasL is expressed on {{c1::T cells that recognize self antigens}} and {{c1::CTLs that kill virus-infected and tumor cells}}
Published	07/30/2024	When FasL binds to Fas, a binding site for an adaptor protein called {{c1::FADD (Fas-associated death domain)}} is formed
Published	07/30/2024	FADD binds inactive {{c1::caspase-8 (or caspase-10)}}
Published	07/30/2024	The extrinsic apoptosis pathway can be inhibited by a protein called {{c1::FLIP}}
Published	07/30/2024	Executioner caspases are caspase/s {{c1::3 and 6}}
Published	07/30/2024	How are apoptopic bodies sensed for apoptopic bodies? (recognition for removal of dead cells){{c1::Phosphatidylserine “flips” out and is expresse…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Efferocytosis}} - Apoptotic are coated with natural antibodies and C1q, which are recognized by receptors on phagocytes that bind and engulf the…
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Caspase activation1. Apoptosis2. Necroptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	Necroptosis involves two kinases called {{c1::receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 and 3 (RIPK1 and RIPK3)}}
Published	07/30/2024	Physiologic necroptosis occurs during {{c1::the formation of mammalian bone growth plate::when}}
Published	07/30/2024	Pyroptosis is a form of apoptosis that is accompanied by the release of the {{c1::fever-inducing cytokine IL-1}}
Published	07/30/2024	Pyroptosis ActivationMicrobial products → Innate immune receptors -activate→ {{c1::inflammasome}} -activates→ caspase-{{c2::1}} -activates {{c2::IL-1}…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Ferroptosis}} - Form of cell death triggered when excessive intracellular levels of iron or reactive oxygen species overwhelm the glutathione-de…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Autophagy}} - A process in which a cell delivers cytoplasmic materials to the lysosome for degradation
Published	07/30/2024	Autophagy proceeds through several steps that involve: 1. {{c1::nucleation and formation of phagophore}}2. {{c1::formation of autophagosome}}3. {{c1::…
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::“autophagy-related genes” called Atgs}} have products that are required for the creation of the autophagosome
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::PE-lipidated LC3}} is increased during autophagy, and it is therefore a useful marker for identifying cells in which autophagy is occurring
Published	07/30/2024	[QC] Pyknosis, Karyohexis, Karyolysis1. Necrosis2. Apoptosis{{c1::A}}
Published	07/30/2024	In light microscopy of cells with generalized swelling, {{c1::hydropic change or vacular degeneration::pattern of non-lethal injury}} may be seen with…
Published	07/30/2024	Reversible cell injury may show ultrastructural changes such as blebbing, loss of villi, swelling mitochondria, dilation of ER, nuclear alterations, a…
Published	07/30/2024	RIPK3 phosphorylates a cytoplasmic protein called {{c1::MLKL}} whose monomers assemble into oligomers, translocate from the cytosol to the plasma…
Published	07/30/2024	Just review this {{c1::haha}}
Published	07/30/2024	Enlargement of the heart in response to pressure overload is an example of {{c1::pathologic hypertrophy::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Growth of the uterus during pregnancy is an example of {{c1::physiologic hypertrophy::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	cardiac hypertrophy is associated with increased {{c1::atrial natriuretic factor::hormone}} gene expression
Published	07/30/2024	Increase in female breast size at puberty and during pregnancy is an example of {{c1::physiologic hyperplasia::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Proliferation of a liver lobe after transplantation is an example of {{c1::compensatory hyperplasia::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Proliferation of bone marrow during hemolysis or is an example of {{c1::compensatory hyperplasia::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Hormone-induced uterine bleeding is an example of {{c1::pathologic hyperplasia::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Stones in the excretory ducts of the salivary glands, pancreas, or bile ducts may lead to {{c1::squamous metaplasia::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Smoking may lead to {{c1::squamous metaplasia::cell adaptation}} in the lungs
Published	07/30/2024	Barrett esophagus is an example of {{c1::Metaplasia from squamous to columnar type::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Atherosclerotic plaques are filled {{c1::cholesterol::lipid}}-laden cells
Published	07/30/2024	Intracellular accumulations of {{c1::proteins}} usually appear as rounded, eosinophilic droplets, vacuoles, or aggregates
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Alcoholic hyaline}} - eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion in liver cells that is characteristic of alcoholic liver disease and is composed predom…
Published	07/30/2024	Increased glycogen deposits may be seen in patients with {{c1::DM Type II}}
Published	07/30/2024	{{c1::Anthracosis}} - Condition where accumulations of carbon that blacken the lung
Published	07/30/2024	In light microscopy of the thyroid gland, {{c1::scalloping of the colloid}} is a sign of hypertrophy and hyperplasia
Published	07/30/2024	BPH is an example of {{c1::pathologic hyperplasia::cell adaptation}}
Published	07/30/2024	Stimuli of hypertrophy adn hyperplasia of the uterus during pregnancy are {{c1::progesterone of the corpos luteum during the 1st trimester and HCG of …
Published	07/30/2024	Cryptorchidism leads to {{c1::atrophy::cell adaptation}} of the testicles
Published	07/30/2024	Menopause leads to atrophy of the endometrium due to lack of {{c1::estrogen}}
Published	07/30/2024	Chronic inflammation can cause {{c1::squamous metaplasia::cell adaptation}} of the endocervical lining epithelium.
Published	07/30/2024	Liquefactive necrosis enclosed in a fibrous capsule is called an {{c1::abscess}}
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