Notes in 2. Physiology

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Status	Last Update	Fields
Published	02/10/2024	What type of EEG waves are seen in Stage N1 sleep?{{c1::Theta}}
Published	02/10/2024	What type of EEG waves are seen in Stage N2 sleep?{{c1::Sleep spindles and K complexes}}
Published	02/10/2024	What type of EEG waveforms are seen in Stage N3 sleep?{{c1::Partial δ}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which type of EEG waves are seen in Stage N4 sleep?{{c1::Full δ}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Sleep latency}} is defined as the time it takes to fall asleep.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::REM latency}} is defined as the time it takes from sleep to the first REM period.
Published	02/10/2024	What is the normal cycle of sleep stages?{{c1::1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM......}}
Published	02/10/2024	Sleep is divided into two stages, {{c1::REM}} and {{c1::non-REM}}
Published	02/10/2024	What EEG waveform is emitted when awake with eyes open? (associated with alert awake state){{c1::Beta (highest frequency, lowest amplitude)}}
Published	02/10/2024	What sleep EEG waveform has the highest frequency and lowest amplitude? {{c1::Beta}}
Published	02/10/2024	What EEG waveform is emitted when awake with eyes closed? (associated with relaxed awake state){{c1::Alpha}}
Published	02/10/2024	Stage {{c1::N1}} of non-REM sleep is described as light sleep
Published	02/10/2024	What EEG waveform is emitted during light sleep (N1)? (associated with early sleep){{c1::Theta}}
Published	02/10/2024	Stage {{c1::N2}} of non-REM sleep is described as deeper sleep
Published	02/10/2024	What EEG waveforms are emitted during deeper sleep (Stage N2)? {{c1::Sleep spindles and K complexes::2}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep does bruxism (teeth grinding) occur? {{c1::Stage N2}}
Published	02/10/2024	Stage {{c1::N3-N4}} of non-REM sleep is described as the deepest non-REM sleep ("slow-wave" sleep)
Published	02/10/2024	What EEG waveform is emitted during deep "slow wave" sleep (N3-N4)? (associated with deep sleep){{c1::Delta}}
Published	02/10/2024	What sleep EEG waveform has the lowest frequency and highest amplitude? {{c1::Delta}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep do sleepwalking (Somnambulism) and night terrors occur? {{c1::Stage N3-N4}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep does bedwetting occur? {{c1::Stage N3-N4}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep do young adults spend the most time in? {{c1::Stage N2 (45%)}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep do young adults spend the least time in? {{c1::Stage N1 (5%)}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep is associated with loss of motor tone?{{c1::REM sleep}}
Published	02/10/2024	REM sleep is characterized by {{c1::increased}} brain O2 use and variable pulse and blood pressure
Published	02/10/2024	REM sleep may play a role in {{c1::memory}} processing
Published	02/10/2024	What neurotransmitter is increased during REM sleep? {{c1::Acetylcholine (thus increased vagal tone)}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep do dreams and nightmares occur? {{c1::REM sleep}}
Published	02/10/2024	Which stage of sleep do penile and clitoral tumescence occur? {{c1::REM sleep}}
Published	02/10/2024	Extraocular movements during REM sleep are due to activity of the {{c1::paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF)}}
Published	02/10/2024	On average, REM sleep occurs every {{c1::90}} minutes, with increasing duration through the night
Published	02/10/2024	Depression is associated with {{c1::increased}} total REM sleep
Published	02/10/2024	Depression is associated with {{c1::decreased}} REM latency
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::vestibular}} system is a sensory system that controls posture and balance. Found in the inner ear, it is a series of fluid-filled membranous…
Published	02/10/2024	The vestibular apparatus consists of {{c1::3}} semi-circular canals which are at right angles to each other (3 dimensions) and have swellings at …
Published	02/10/2024	All the semi-lunar canals connect via a structure called the {{c1::utricle}} which has the {{c1::saccule}} as its base.→ They all contain sensory hair…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::utricle}} and {{c1::saccule}} are collectively known as {{c2::otolith}} organs.
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::Utricle}} detects {{c2::back/front tilt}} and {{c2::horizontal acceleration}}
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::Saccule}} detects {{c2::vertical acceleration}}
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::Semi-circular canals}} detect {{c2::rotational acceleration}}
Published	02/10/2024	The hair cells are embedded in the {{c1::cupula}} which becomes distorted by movement of the {{c2::endolymph}} fluid within the canals.
Published	02/10/2024	The cilia of the hair cells embedded within the gelatinous cupula synapse directly with the sensory neurons of the {{c1::vestibular (CN VIII)}} nerve.
Published	02/10/2024	How do semi-circular canals detect rotational acceleration?If the skull is rotated left or right:[1] {{c1::Endolymph does not move due to Inertia at f…
Published	02/10/2024	If rotating at constant speed, what happens to the endolymph?{{c1::The endolymph catches up and rotates at the same speed, removing the shearing force…
Published	02/10/2024	If you suddenly stop rotating, what happens to the endolymph?{{c1::Sudden stop will cause endolymph to continue to move due to momentum creating a con…
Published	02/10/2024	The cilia of the hair cells are of two types; there is a single very large {{c1::kinocilium}} and a set of progressively smaller {{c1::stereocilia}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Distortion of the cilia {{c2::in the direction}} of the kinocilium causes {{c1::depolarisation}} and {{c1::increased}} discharge of APs in the ve…
Published	02/10/2024	Distortion of the cilia {{c2::away}} from the kinocilium leads to {{c1::hyperpolarization}} and {{c1::decreased}} discharge of APs in t…
Published	02/10/2024	Most of the integration of sensory information of movement and balance takes place in the {{c1::cerebellum}}
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::cristae}} within the ampulla is made up of the cupula, hair cells and the gelatineous material.
Published	02/10/2024	The sensory apparatus of the utricle and saccule are collectively known as the {{c1::maculae}}
Published	02/10/2024	The macula in the utricle are orientated on the {{c1::horizontal}} plane, those in the saccule on the {{c1::vertical}} plane.
Published	02/10/2024	The maculae have a set of cilia which protrude into a gelatinous mass called the {{c1::otolith}} membrane.
Published	02/10/2024	Embedded in the otolith membrane are CaCO3 crystals called {{c1::otoliths}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Why are otoliths affected more by gravity compared to endolymph?Because otoliths have a greater {{c1::density}} than endolymph
Published	02/10/2024	How does tilting the head affect the otoliths?{{c1::Tilting the head moves the otoliths and the otolith membrane in which they are embedded causing&nb…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Backward}} tilt moves the otolith {{c2::in the direction of}} the kinocilium causing {{c2::depolarisation}} and {{c2::increased}} discharge…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Forward}} tilt moves the otolith {{c2::away from}} the kinocilium causing {{c2::hyperpolarization}} and {{c2::decreased}} discharge of APs.…
Published	02/10/2024	Tilt of the head is detected by the macula in the {{c1::utricle}} in the horizontal plane
Published	02/10/2024	Vertical forces are detected by the macula in the {{c1::saccule}} in the vertical plane, e.g. elevation in a lift, and provide information on orientat…
Published	02/10/2024	The distinct pattern of information being sent from the three {{c1::ampulla}} of the semi-circular canals, and the two {{c1::maculae}} of the otolith …
Published	02/10/2024	Direct neural pathways connect the {{c1::vestibular}} nerve directly to the {{c1::cerebellar}} centres, which co-ordinate the postural muscles require…
Published	02/10/2024	The vestibular system reflexes are involved either with the {{c1::vestibulocortical}} tract or the {{c1::vestibulospinal}} tract
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Tonic labyrinthine reflex}} is a reflex that keeps the axis of the head in a constant relationship with the rest of the body. → Uses information…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Dynamic righting reflexes}} are reflexes that involve rapid postural adjustments that are made to stop you falling when you trip. → Lo…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Vestibulo-ocular reflexes}} are reflexes that involve a strong association between the vestibular apparatus, the visual apparatus and postu…
Published	02/10/2024	Within the medullary vestibular nuclei, afferents from the {{c1::vestibular}} system synapse with afferent fibres travelling to the {{c1::extraocular}…
Published	02/10/2024	The visual system sends powerful descending projections which control {{c1::posture}} → which is why it's more difficult to balance when you close you…
Published	02/10/2024	Vestibular Nystagmus is a predictable eye movement in response to the vestibular system, it involves: {{c1::A series of saccadic eye movements th…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Caloric stimulation}} is a simple test for the horizontal semicircular canals that uses nystagmus to test vestibular function via administration…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Warm fluid (44°C)}} causes nystagmus {{c2::towards}} affected side{{c1::Cold fluid (30°C)}} causes nystagmus {{c2::away from}} affecte…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Motion sickness}} is most likely to occur if visual and vestibular system inputs to the cerebellum are in conflict e.g. if the vestibular system…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Labyrinthitis}} is a condition associated with acute interference with normal vestibular function as a result of infection = all ANS symptoms + …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Vertigo}} is the perception (hallucination) of movement in the absence of movement.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Ménière’s disease}} is a condition associated with over production of endolymph causing increased pressure in the semicircular canals…
Published	02/10/2024	There are {{c1::12}} pairs of cranial nerves and {{c1::31}} pairs of spinal nerves in the body
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Acetylcholine}} acts on {{c2::cholinergic e.g. Nicotinic (ionotropic) & Muscarinic (metabotropic)}} receptors
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Noradrenaline}} acts on {{c2::adrenergic e.g. alpha & beta}} receptors
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic outflow is {{c1::craniosacral (cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X) and the sacral spinal cord (S2, S3, S4)}}
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic preganglionic fibres are {{c1::long}} and postganglionic fibres are {{c1::short}}
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic outflow is from cell bodies in the lateral horn from {{c1::thoracolumbar (T1-L2)}} level
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic preganglionic fibres are {{c1::short}} and postganglionic fibres are {{c1::long}}
Published	02/10/2024	All preganglionic fibres, both sympathetic and parasympathetic, release {{c1::acetylcholine}}, which acts on {{c2::nicotinic choli…
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers release {{c1::acetylcholine}}, which acts on {{c2::cholinergic muscarinic}} receptors on the…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic postganglionic fibers release {{c1::noradrenaline}}, which acts on {{c2::adrenergic (alpha or beta)}} receptors o…
Published	02/10/2024	The sympathetic post-ganglionic cells in the adrenal medulla are an exception because they have no {{c1::axons}}, release mainly {{c1::adrenaline}}, a…
Published	02/10/2024	In the eye, activation of the sympathetic system causes:{{c1::Contraction}} of the radial muscle of the iris{{c1::Relaxation}} of the ciliary muscle s…
Published	02/10/2024	In the eye, activation of the parasympathetic system causes:{{c1::Contraction}} of the circular (sphincter) muscle of the iris{{c1::Contraction}} of t…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on the eyeNoradrenaline activates {{c1::a1}} receptors on radial muscle of the iris     → {…
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on the eyeAcetylcholine activates {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors on sphincter (circular) muscle of the iris  &nbsp…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on the heartNoradrenaline activates {{c1::b1}} receptors on the pacemaker cells     → {{c2::Increases hear…
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on the heartAcetylcholine activates {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors on pacemaker cells     → {{c2::D…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on the blood vesselsNoradrenaline activates {{c1::a1}} receptors on smooth muscle of vessels    → {{c2::Contraction …
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on the blood vesselsUsually no effect, except in {{c1::gentalia}} and {{c1::salivary glands}} → (EXCEPTIONS…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on the lungsNoradrenaline activates {{c1::b2}} receptors on smooth muscle of airways→ {{c2::Relaxation of smooth muscles}} &am…
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on the lungsAcetylcholine activates {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors on smooth muscle of airways     → {{c2::Co…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on the salivary glandsNoradrenaline activates {{c1::b}} receptors    → Stimulates {{c2::thick}} secretion …
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on the salivary glandsAcetylcholine activates {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors    → Stimulates profuse {{c2::wa…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on the reproductive tractNoradrenaline activates {{c1::a1}} receptors on smooth muscle of urethra    → {{c…
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on the reproductive tractAcetylcholine activates {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors on smooth muscle of corpus caverno…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic effect on bladderNoradrenaline activates {{c1::a1}} receptors on smooth muscle of sphincter    → {{c2::Contraction of …
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic effect on bladderAcetylcholine activates {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors on smooth muscle of sphincter    → {{c2::Rel…
Published	02/10/2024	The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems differ in {{c1::outflow from CNS}}, {{c1::location of ganglia}}, {{c1::length of pre/postganglionic fibres…
Published	02/10/2024	Voluntary brain control of muscles is via {{c1::alpha motoneurones}} in the spinal cord→ final common pathway
Published	02/10/2024	Reflex control of muscles is {{c1::autonomous}} and hard-wired into motoneurone circuits at each segmental spinal level
Published	02/10/2024	Brainstem nuclei control spinal reflexes and integrate them into {{c1::higher order}} reflexes that control posture and balance
Published	02/10/2024	Brainstem nuclei receive control inputs about voluntary movements from higher centres from ‒ the {{c1::cerebral cortex}} (motor, premot…
Published	02/10/2024	Four systems that control movement are:[1] {{c1::Descending control pathways}}[2] {{c1::Basal ganglia}}[3] {{c1::Cerebellum}}[4] {{c1::Local spinal co…
Published	02/10/2024	Higher brain centres are functionally {{c1::interdependent}} and control different aspects of voluntary movements.
Published	02/10/2024	The spinal cord receives descending input via the {{c1::brainstem}} AND direct cortical input via the {{c1::Corticospinal (Pyramidal) tract}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Sensory input is crucial and enters at all levels:[1] {{c2::Spinal cord}} → ({{c1::Proprioceptors, Touch, Pain}})[2] {{c2::Brainstem}} → ({{c1::Vestib…
Published	02/10/2024	Example of the stretch reflex is the {{c1::patellar tendon (knee-jerk) reflex}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Spinal reflexes}} are simple building blocks for movements
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the stretch reflex when you tap the patella with tendon hammer (and the 3 types of connections)[Monosynaptic reflex][1] {{c1::Sharp…
Published	02/10/2024	When additional weight is added, the muscle stretch stimulates muscle {{c1::spindles}} causing reflex muscle contraction so it shortens to {{c1::previ…
Published	02/10/2024	The inverse muscle stretch reflex uses {{c1::Golgi tendon}} organs to monitor muscle {{c2::tension}} via sensory 1b…
Published	02/10/2024	Muscle {{c1::spindles}} monitor muscle {{c2::length}}
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the inverse stretch reflex (Golgi-tendon organ reflex) when you lift too much weight that pulls hard on tendonWhen you pull hard on…
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the flexor and withdrawal reflex with crossed extension when you step on a sharp pinWhen you step on a sharp pin{{c1::[1] Activatio…
Published	02/10/2024	Flexor / withdrawal reflexes use information from A delta fibres coming from {{c1::pain (nociceptors)}} receptors in skin, muscles and joints.
Published	02/10/2024	Why is the flexor and crossed extensor reflex slower than the stretch reflexBecause nociceptive sensory fibres have a {{c1::smaller diameter}} than mu…
Published	02/10/2024	How can the GTO reflex be voluntarily overridden e.g. when holding a baby?{{c1::Descending voluntary excitation of alpha motoneurones overrides the in…
Published	02/10/2024	How can the stretch reflex be voluntarily overridden e.g. anxious patient?{{c1::Descending inhibition in an anxious patient hyperpolarizes alpha moton…
Published	02/10/2024	How does the Jendrassik manoeuvre enhance the stretch reflex in an anxious patient?{{c1::Anxious patient has descending inhibition which hyperpol…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Anticipation}} of pain can increase the vigour of the {{c2::withdrawal}} reflex when the painful stimulus arrives
Published	02/10/2024	In the {{c1::Stretch}} reflex, spindle input is highly localised and affects alpha motoneurons at {{c2::one or two}} spinal segments.
Published	02/10/2024	In the {{c1::Withdrawal}} reflex, a painful stimulus spreads over {{c2::several}} spinal segments.
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Published	02/10/2024	In motor control, {{c1::Strategy}} means the goal and the movement plan to best achieve this goal
Published	02/10/2024	In motor control, {{c1::Tactics}} means the sequence of spatiotemporal muscle contractions to achieve a goal smoothly and accurately
Published	02/10/2024	In motor control, {{c1::Execution}} means the activation of motor neuron and interneuron pools to generate goal-directed movement
Published	02/10/2024	The brain is connected to the spinal cord via {{c1::lateral}} pathways and {{c1::ventromedial}} pathways
Published	02/10/2024	Lateral pathways control {{c1::voluntary movements}} of distal muscles→ under direct cortical control
Published	02/10/2024	Ventromedial pathways control {{c1::posture}} and {{c1::locomotion}}→ under brain stem control
Published	02/10/2024	Lateral pathways that control voluntary movements include the {{c1::Corticospinal/Pyramidal}} tract and the {{c1::Rubrospinal}} tract
Published	02/10/2024	At the medulla/spinal cord junction, the Corticospinal tract (CST) {{c1::crosses over (decussates)}}, so that the right motor cortex co…
Published	02/10/2024	Corticospinal tract (CST) axons synapse on {{c1::ventral horn motor neurones}} and {{c1::interneurones}} in the spinal cordto control muscles vol…
Published	02/10/2024	2/3 of Corticospinal Tract originates in areas {{c1::4}} and {{c1::6}} of the frontal motor cortex and the rest is {{c1::somatosensory}}
Published	02/10/2024	The Rubrospinal tract (RST) starts in the {{c1::red nucleus}} of midbrain and receives inputs from similar cortical areas as the CST.
Published	02/10/2024	What happens if there is lesion to CST and RST?{{c1::Fine movements of arms and hands are lost. Can’t move shoulders, elbows, wrist and fingers indepe…
Published	02/10/2024	What happens after a few months if there is lesion only to CST ?{{c1::Lesion to CST alone – same deficits seen, but after a few months functions reapp…
Published	02/10/2024	Corticospinal/Pyramidal neurones directly synapse (monosynapse) with {{c1::excitatory}} motoneurones to {{c2::agonist}} muscles
Published	02/10/2024	Corticospinal/Pyramidal neurones synapse with interneurons {{c1::inhibitory}} to motoneurones that go to {{c2::antagonist}} muscles
Published	02/10/2024	Ventromedial pathways that control posture and locomotion include the {{c1::Vestibulospinal}} tract and the {{c1::Tectospinal}} tract&n…
Published	02/10/2024	The Vestibulospinal tract stabilizes the {{c1::head}} and {{c1::neck}} via vestibular input from the ears
Published	02/10/2024	The Tectospinal tract stabilizes the position of {{c1::eyes}} during body movement via visual input
Published	02/10/2024	Ventromedial pathways that control trunk and antigravity muscles include the {{c1::Pontine reticulospinal}} tract a…
Published	02/10/2024	Lower motor neurone (LMN) distribution is {{c1::somatotopic}}i.e. relating to, or mediating the relation between particular body regions and corr…
Published	02/10/2024	LMNs coming from the Medial tracts control {{c1::axial}} and {{c1::proximal}} limb muscles (posture and balance)
Published	02/10/2024	LMNs coming from the Lateral tracts control {{c1::distal}} limb muscles (skilled movements)
Published	02/10/2024	Lateral tracts coming from the {{c1::motor cortex}} control {{c2::voluntary movements}} of distal muscles→ i.e. Corticospinal/Pyramidal tract and…
Published	02/10/2024	Medial tracts coming from the {{c1::brainstem}} control {{c2::posture}} and {{c2::locomotion}}→ i.e. Vestibulospinal tract and the Tectospin…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::supplementary motor area (SMA)}} and {{c1::premotor area (PMA)}} lie in area {{c2::6}} of the brain
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::supplementary motor (SMA)}} area directly innervates {{c2::distal}} motor units
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::premotor (PMA)}} area connects with {{c2::reticulospinal}} neurones that innervate {{c2::proximal}} motor units
Published	02/10/2024	A mental image of body in space is generated by somatosensory, proprioceptive and visual inputs to {{c1::posterior parietal}} cortex located in a…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::prefrontal}} and {{c1::parietal}} cortex is where decisions are taken and which actions/movements to take and their likely outcome.
Published	02/10/2024	During thought and movement, i.e. playing piano under PET imaging, blood flow increases in both area {{c1::6 (SMA & PMA)}} and area {{c1::4 (PMC)}…
Published	02/10/2024	During thought ONLY, i.e. thinking about playing piano under PET imaging, blood flow increases in only area {{c1::6 (SMA & PMA)}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Mirror}} neurons in area 6 (PMA) fire when self or others perform specific actions
Published	02/10/2024	Commands to perform precise movements, i.e. direction of a movement, are encoded in the integrated activity of large populations of neurones…
Published	02/10/2024	A change in body position initiates rapid compensatory {{c1::feedback messages}} from {{c2::vestibular}} nuclei in brainstem to spinal cord motor…
Published	02/10/2024	Before movements begin, {{c1::feedforward (anticipatory)}} mechanisms are initiated by {{c2::reticular formation}} nuclei in the brainstem to sta…
Published	02/10/2024	Major subcortical input to area 6 comes from the {{c1::ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPL) of thalamus}} which receives input from the {{c2::basal ga…
Published	02/10/2024	Basal ganglia receive input from {{c1::frontal}}, {{c1::prefrontal}} and {{c1::parietal}} cortex
Published	02/10/2024	The Corpus striatum contains {{c1::caudate nucleus}} and the {{c1::putamen}} which are the input zone of the basal ganglia
Published	02/10/2024	The caudate nucleus and the putamen have medium spiny neurones that receive and integrate {{c1::excitatory (glutamatergic)}} cortical inputs which are…
Published	02/10/2024	The axons of the medium spiny neurones in putamen and caudate nucelus are {{c1::inhibitory (GABAergic)}} and project to {{c2::globus pallidus}} a…
Published	02/10/2024	In the basal ganglia, the {{c1::putamen}} fires before {{c2::limb/trunk}} movements while the {{c1::caudate nucleus}} fires before {{c2::eye}} movemen…
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the pathways of the motor loop from cortex ‒ basal ganglia ‒ cortex{{c1::• Cortex to putamen – is an excitatory pathway • Putamen to Globus …
Published	02/10/2024	The functional consequence of cortical activation of putamen is {{c1::excitation}}(excitation or inhibition)
Published	02/10/2024	The motor loop from cortex ‒ basal ganglia ‒ cortex acts as a {{c1::positive}} feedback loop focusing or funnelling activation of widespread cort…
Published	02/10/2024	The direct pathway of the motor loop acts as a {{c1::positive}} feedback loop that initiates the GO signal to the SMA in cortex via inhibiting globus …
Published	02/10/2024	At rest, globus pallidus neurones are spontaneously active so they tonically {{c1::inhibit}} VLo/VPL of thalamus
Published	02/10/2024	The indirect pathway of the motor loop acts as an {{c1::antagonizer}} to the direct pathway by ultimately exciting globus pallidus which cau…
Published	02/10/2024	In the indirect pathway of the motor loop, the Corpus striatum excites {{c1::GPe (globus pallidus externa)}} which then inhibits both {…
Published	02/10/2024	In the indirect pathway of the motor loop, the Cortex excites {{c1::STN (subthalamic nuclei)}} which excites {{c1::GPi (GP interna)}} c…
Published	02/10/2024	The direct pathway of the motor loop functions by selecting {{c1::specific}} motor actions
Published	02/10/2024	The indirect pathway of the motor loop functions by suppressing {{c1::competing/inappropriate}} actions
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Parkinson's disease}} is a basal ganglia disorder caused by degeneration of neurones in {{c2::substantia nigra}} and their dopaminergic (excitat…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Huntington's disease}} is a basal ganglia disorder caused by profound loss of caudate, putamen and globus pallidus
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::cortico-ponto-cerebellar}} projection connects the cortex, pontine nuclei and cerebellum to allow for precise and subtle movements
Published	02/10/2024	The cerebellum is involved in controlling {{c1::direction}}, {{c1::timing}}, {{c1::force}} of movement
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Cognition}} describes the integration of all sensory information to make sense of a situation.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Neuronal plasticity}} is the ability of central neurons to adapt their neuronal connections in response to “learning” experiences.
Published	02/10/2024	The three key structures of learning and memory in the brain are:[1] {{c1::Hippocampus}} ‒ formation of memories[2] {{c1::Cortex}} ‒ storage of memori…
Published	02/10/2024	The limbic system gives events {{c1::emotional}} significance which is essential for memory.
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::limbic}} system is responsible for selecting what experiences are stored in memory, with a small number of significant experiences being sto…
Published	02/10/2024	People with {{c1::bilateral hippocampal}} damage have immediate memory and intact long-term memory, but are unable to form new {{c2::long-term}} …
Published	02/10/2024	Division of memory:[1] {{c1::Immediate or Sensory}} memory ‒ a few seconds[2] {{c1::Short-term}} memory ‒ seconds - hours[3]{{c1:: Intermedi…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Immediate}} or {{c1::Sensory}} memory lasts for a few seconds and describes the ability to hold experiences in the mind for a few seconds.→ Base…
Published	02/10/2024	Visual memories decay fastest ({{c1::<1}} seconds), while auditory memories decay slowest ({{c1::<4}} seconds).
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Short-term}} memory lasts for seconds to hours and describes the working memory, used for short term tasks such as dialling a phone number, ment…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Intermediate long-term}} memory lasts for hours to weeks e.g. what you did last week.→ Associated with {{c2::chemical adaptation at the presynap…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Long-term}} memory can be lifelong e.g. where you grew up and your childhood friends→ Associated with {{c2::structural changes in synaptic conne…
Published	02/10/2024	How does short-term memory become long-term memory?{{c1::Short-term memories are associated with reverberating circuits that when deemed significant t…
Published	02/10/2024	If reverberation is disrupted e.g. following a head injury or infection, especially if it involves the hippocampus and/or thalamus, memory loss normal…
Published	02/10/2024	Two types of amnesia are:{{c1::Anterograde}} amnesia – cannot {{c2::form new memories}}{{c1::Retrograde}} amnesia – cannot {{c2::access (more recent) …
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