Notes in 2- Carbohydrates

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Published	02/10/2024	The functions of Carbohydrates:• Highly oxidizable Sugar and starch molecules have “high energy” H atom-associated electrons (major energy source…
Published	02/10/2024	What are the functions of carbohydrates?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Monosaccharides}} (simple sugars) are classified according to the number of carbons (3-9) they contain, the most relevant one to us are Hexoses …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Disaccharides}} are sugars formed from two monomers/monosaccharides that are linked together by glycosidic bonds.Relevant ones:1. {{c2::Maltose}…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Glycosidic bonds}} are covalent bonds that form when a {{c2::hydroxyl group}} of one monosaccharide reacts with an {{c2::anomeric carbon}}&…
Published	02/10/2024	An {{c1::anomeric carbon}} is the carbon on a sugar that has four different groups around it, which allows two different left and right handed mirror …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Maltose}} is a disaccharide sugar that is a product of the break-down of starch.It contains an anomeric C-1 which is available for oxidation, so…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lactose}} is a disaccharide sugar mainly found in milk, it is formed from a glycosidic bond between galactose and glucose.It has an anomeric C-1…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Sucrose}} is a common disaccharide sugar made only by plants, it consists of approx 25% of dietary carbohydrates.It does not have a free anomeri…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Polysaccharides}} are sugars that contain more than ten monosaccharide units, they have long chains, which might be made up of the same or diffe…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Starch}} is a polysaccharide sugar that is made up of two types of glucose polymer:------------------------------------------------------------[…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Glycogen}} is a polysaccharide sugar used in animal cells to store glucose.- It is a polymer of glucose (α1→4) glycosidic bond linked sub-u…
Published	02/10/2024	Why is glucose stored in polymers?• {{c1::Compactness}} (packing more in a given space - helical structure)• Polymers e.g. Amylopectin and Glycogen ha…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Glycoproteins}} are proteins that have carbohydrates covalently attached to them.Most extracellular eukaryotic proteins have associated carbohyd…
Published	02/10/2024	Why do some carbohydrates attach to proteins? i.e. Glycoproteins.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)}} are un-branched polymers, known as mucopolysaccharides, made from repeating units of hexuronic acid and an amino-sug…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Proteoglycans}} are proteins that have a high content of carbohydrates, which are formed from Glycosaminoglycans covalently bonded to proteins.L…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Glycoproteins}} are proteins that have a low content of carbohydrates compared to protein.Location: Outer plasma membrane and extracellular…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Mucopolysaccharidoses}} are a group of genetic disorders caused by the absence or malfunction of the enzymes that are required for the breakdown…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Hurler syndrome}} is a mucopolysaccharidoses disorder (malfunction of enzymes that breakdown GAGs)That leads to:- Severe developmental defe…
Published	02/10/2024	Carbohydrates in our Diet:{{c1::Monosaccharides}}• Glucose & Fructose (fruit, honey){{c1::Disaccharides}}• Lactose & Maltose & Sucrose (mi…
Published	02/10/2024	Digestion of carbohydrates:{{c1::Mouth}} → Salivary amylase hydrolyses (α1→4) glycosidic bonds of starch{{c1::Stomach}} → No carbohydrate digestion{{c…
Published	02/10/2024	Absorption of Glucose in the intestines:Inside the the lumen of the intestines there is a high [Na+] and [Glucose] after eating.Glucose is absorbed th…
Published	02/10/2024	Explain the Absorption of Glucose/Galactose/Fructose in the intestines:
Published	02/10/2024	Disaccharide deficiencies either genetic or non-geneticnon-genetic results from:• Intestinal infection• Inflammation of gut lining• Drugs injuring the…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lactose intolerance}} is the most common disaccharidase deficiency because most human populations lose lactase activity after weaning.If lactase…
Published	02/10/2024	Why does ingesting milk cause gas build-up and diarrhoea if you are lactose intolerant?
Published	02/10/2024	After the absorption of glucose through the intestinal epithelium cells:Glucose diffuses → hepatic portal vein → liverGlucose is phosporylated into Gl…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Glucokinase}} is an enzyme that facilitates phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, it is mainly found in the liver.{{c1::Hexokinase}…
Published	02/10/2024	Glucokinase vs HexokinaseWhat's the difference?
Published	02/10/2024	The fate of glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P):[1] {{c1::Pentose phosphate pathway}} → pentoses (5-C)[2] {{c1::Glycolysis}}(Substrate-level phosphorylat…
Published	02/10/2024	Glycogen is {{c1::90%::percentage}} stored in the liver and skeletal muscle----------------------------------If [Blood Glucose] ↓ in liver Glycog…
Published	02/10/2024	Synthesis of Glycogen (Glycogenesis):------------------------------------------------------------[A] Glycogenin begins the process by covalently …
Published	02/10/2024	Degradation of Glycogen (Glycogenolysis):[A] Glucose monomers are removed one at a time from the non-reducing ends as Glucose-1-phosphate (G-1-P)…
Published	02/10/2024	What happens to all the degraded glycogen?
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Von Gierke's disease}} is a disease that is characterized by G6-Pase deficiency in liver, kidney, and intestine, so you can't breakdown gly…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::McArdle's disease}} is a disease characterized by skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase deficiency.Symptoms:-• High [muscle glycogen] – normal …
Published	02/10/2024	Why are the symptoms of McArdle's disease not usually apparent in resting state?
Published	02/10/2024	Glycolysis: (forming ATP through substrate level phosphorylation)Overview:• Occurs in cytoplasm • Starting Substrate → Glucose  • End P…
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the overall free energy of Glycolysis (open up)
Published	02/10/2024	Under anaerobic conditions, NAD+ must be regenerated to maintain {{c1::NADH/NAD+ redox balance}}.It is replenished by: 2 Pyruvate …
Published	02/10/2024	Why must NAD+ be replenished after being converted to NADH in Glycolysis?
Published	02/10/2024	What happens to pyruvate after Glycolysis?
Published	02/10/2024	Describe how NAD+ replenishment happens to maintain redox balance in different fates of pyruvate:[1] Ethanol[2] Lactate[3] Acetyl Coenzyme A
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the fate of blood lactate
Published	02/10/2024	Some tissues rely on glucose as their main source of energy:(CNS, RBCs, Testes, Embryonic tissue)The whole body requires approx {{c1::160g}} of g…
Published	02/10/2024	Why can't gluconeogenesis be an exact reverse of glycolysis?
Published	02/10/2024	There are 4 reactions that sidestep the 3 irreversible reactions of glycolysis to form glucose (gluconeogenesis):To allow for independent control of t…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Fructose}} and {{c1::Galactose}} are two monosaccharides do not have specific pathways like Glycolysis of glucose, but they can jump into glycol…
Published	02/10/2024	How does drinking affect gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose)? and what homeostatic malfunctions could it lead to?
Published	02/10/2024	Explain the role of PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) in PEPCKmus mice.
Published	02/10/2024	Substrate-level phosphorylation vs Oxidative/Respiration-linked phosphorylation.What's the difference?
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