Notes in Pharm 221

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Published	03/12/2024	When to perform observational studies1) {{c1::unethical}} to assess {{c2::causality}} in RCT- examples: risk factors for {{c3::fatal diseases}}, delib…
Published	03/12/2024	Experimental settingStudies where {{c1::investigators make an intervention}} and {{c2::study its effects }}{{c1::Randomized Contr…
Published	03/12/2024	observational settingStudies where investigators only {{c1::observe}}, no {{c1::intervention}} is madeSome research can ONLY be done through obse…
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Published	03/12/2024	Strobe statement- what is it? {{c1::a list of things that a statistical report has to contain}}- the reports include: {{c2::cohort}}, {{c2::…
Published	03/12/2024	what are cohort studies
Published	03/12/2024	Case control study
Published	03/12/2024	cross sectional study
Published	03/12/2024	Case Report and Case SeriesA report on a {{c1::single patient/case}} ({{c3::report}}) or a {{c2::number of patients/cases}} ({{c3::series}}) with…
Published	03/12/2024	Basic cohort designCohort: A group of people who are {{c1::banded together}}, usually because they have {{c2::something in common}}Cohort Studies…
Published	03/12/2024	Exposed Group: {{c1::Individuals observed to have the exposure at baseline}}I.e. Individuals who take aspirin for heart healthUnexposed Group:&nb…
Published	03/12/2024	outcome evaluationThe ECHO ModelClassifies health outcomes into {{c1::economic}}, {{c1::clinical}}, and {{c1::humanistic}} categories{{c5::Econom…
Published	03/12/2024	follow up evaluationAnalysis Question: {{c1::Is the follow-up duration reasonable?}}Follow-up duration should be appropriate for {{c2::how long t…
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Published	03/12/2024	ProspectiveResearcher collects data {{c1::after the study onset}} by{{c2::following individuals over a period of time}}Pros: {{c4::Can design the…
Published	03/12/2024	RetrospectiveResearcher evaluates data from {{c1::past events}} or {{c1::existing data}} such as {{c2::medical records}}Pros: {{c2…
Published	03/12/2024	prospective cohortinvestigators can {{c1::control elements of the study}} because {{c2::no data has been collected yet}}Assess {{c3::baselin…
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Published	03/12/2024	retrospective cohort{{c1::Previous exposure}} AND {{c1::outcome}} are typically measured using {{c2::stored biological samples}} or&nbs…
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Published	03/12/2024	Closed Cohort: {{c1::Start with a set group of people (pre-picked) }}ExamplesBirth cohortNational registry
Published	03/12/2024	Fixed Cohort: {{c1::A closed cohort with a set follow-up time}}ExampleBirth cohort of 1995 followed from birth to 2020
Published	03/12/2024	Open Cohort: Individuals are allowed to {{c1::come in and drop out}} of the cohort over time and contribute {{c2::variable follow-up}} time …
Published	03/12/2024	Survival analysis:{{c1::Stats used to study timing of an occurrence/ event}}E.g. Time to first MI, time to first hip fractureAnother type of follow-up…
Published	03/12/2024	data censoring -- condition where {{c1::only part of a measurement or observation value}} is knownExampleWe are looking at time to first hea…
Published	03/12/2024	{{c1::Kaplan-Meier}}, {{c1::log rank test}}, and {{c1::Cox regression}} can all handle censoringData censoring differs from missing data in that …
Published	03/12/2024	Kaplan Meier (KM) curve
Published	03/12/2024	Log Rank Testsurvival analysis methodcompare {{c1::two survival curves}}Null hypothesis -- {{c2::no difference exists between the survival c…
Published	03/12/2024	Cox proportional hazards regression Aka {{c1::Cox regression}}Enables {{c2::difference between survival times of groups}} to be tested while allowing …
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Published	03/12/2024	Biases occurs when {{c1::estimate}} of the effect of the exposure on disease does not represent the {{c1::true effect}} of the exposure on t…
Published	03/12/2024	confoundingFor a factor to be a confounder, it needs to be{{c2::Associated}} with the {{c1::exposure}}A {{c1::risk factor for the outcome}}&…
Published	03/12/2024	confounding example: Cohort study of the effect of the flu vaccine on getting the flu in children aged 3. All individuals aged 3 in a statewide regist…
Published	03/12/2024	selection biasRCT: enroll certain patients into {{c1::one treatment group over another}}Cohort: {{c2::Risk for the disease outcome}} affects…
Published	03/12/2024	information biaswhat is it ? {{c1::Error in data measurement/ collection that skews the estimation of the true effect}}OccursAt the {{c2::data co…
Published	03/12/2024	Types of Information/Measurement BiasMisclassification Bias{{c1::Differential Misclassification}}{{c1::Non-differential Misclassification}}
Published	03/12/2024	Differential MisclassificationBias due to {{c1::detecting, diagnosing, or reporting the disease differently}} for the exposed vs. unexposed group…
Published	03/12/2024	Non-Differential MisclassificationBias where misclassification of the disease occurs but misclassification is {{c1::the same for all subjects}}Ex…
Published	03/12/2024	advantages of cohort studiesDirectly estimates {{c2::rates}}, {{c2::risks}}, {{c2::rate ratios}}, {{c2::risk ratios}}, and {{c2::risk differences…
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Published	03/12/2024	unadjusted OR -- calculating OR without {{c1::mathematically accounting for potentially confounding factors}}adjusted OR -- calculating OR {{c1::after…
Published	03/12/2024	RCT:{{c1::Actively intervening so that there’s a difference between 2(+) groups to test a hypothesis}}Cohort study: {{c2::Following possible risk…
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Published	03/12/2024	selecting cases and controls Cases: {{c1::People with the outcome/disease}}must be defined with a {{c2::specified/validated method of diagno…
Published	03/12/2024	Incident CasesCases have {{c1::newly diagnosed disease}}Incidence: {{c2::Number of new cases of a disease that develops in a population duri…
Published	03/12/2024	Prevalent CasesCases are {{c1::persons with existing disease}}Prevalence: {{c2::Proportion of individuals in a population with disease at a …
Published	03/12/2024	Diagnosis {{c1::=/=}} early diseaseNewly diagnosed disease can still be{{c1::late-stage}}E.g. {{c1::late-stage cancer diagnosis}}
Published	03/12/2024	case control design specificsDefined Base PopulationsRandom control selections from the base populations can be made without introducing {{c1::se…
Published	03/12/2024	assessing exposure statusCollecting Data{{c1::Surveys (recall bias)}}{{c1::Databases}}{{c1::Biological samples}}Potential for sample {{c2::degradation…
Published	03/12/2024	selection biasOccurs more in {{c1::case-control}} than {{c1::cohort studies}}{{c2::Exposure or factors related to the exposure}} affect…
Published	03/12/2024	Detection Bias: Occurs when the exposure affects the {{c1::detection}} of  the outcome In a case-control study, exposure…
Published	03/12/2024	recall biasType of {{c1::differential misclassification}} biasOccurs when {{c1::individuals do not remember previous events or experiences accura…
Published	03/12/2024	temporal ambiguityBias occurs when it is not clear whether the {{c2::exposure affects the disease}} or {{c3::the disease affects the exposur…
Published	03/12/2024	advantages of case control studies- {{c1::quicker and cheaper}} to conduct than cohorts - study {{c1::rare}} outcomes- study outcomes with {{c1::…
Published	03/13/2024	What is a cross-sectional study?
Published	03/13/2024	cross sectional designOften used to descriptively capture info about populationUsed for{{c1::Prevalence}}{{c1::Diagnosing/staging}} a diseaseEsta…
Published	03/13/2024	rationaleCan be {{c1::quick/efficient}} collection and analysis of dataEasy to analyzeSometimes {{c1::not enough data}} to analyze info over…
Published	03/13/2024	population selectionTarget population: People with {{c1::desired clinical and demographic}} informationImportant to consider the {{c1::generalizabilit…
Published	03/13/2024	Representative Sampling -- generating a sample that {{c1::represents the target population}} study participants are selected fromTypes of represe…
Published	03/13/2024	Non-representative sampling- generating a sample that {{c1::does not exactly represent}} the target population because it is not {{c1::…
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Published	03/13/2024	structured interviews- {{c1::same set of questions asked in the same order to all participants }}- usually {{c1::possible response options}} are …
Published	03/13/2024	Semi-structured interviewsIncludes both {{c1::structured}} and {{c1::unstructured}} questionsCan include {{c1::set questions}} with {{c…
Published	03/13/2024	Unstructured interviews{{c1::Non-standard}} questionsallows for {{c1::flexibility}}Question and answer categories are {{c1::not pre-det…
Published	03/13/2024	Survey Methods {{c1::Mail}}Pros: More likely to reach individuals who {{c3::may not have internet access}}Cons: May be difficult for individ…
Published	03/13/2024	Survey Instrument: {{c1::Set of questions aimed at collecting data relevant to a study}}{{c3::Qualitative}}{{c2::Open-ended}} questions{{c3::Quan…
Published	03/13/2024	open ended questionsquestion that allows the respondent the ability to answer {{c1::freely}}ProsAllows researchers to gain lots of {{c2::informat…
Published	03/13/2024	close ended questions{{c1::Dichotomous}}Only {{c2::two}} options, mutually {{c2::exclusive}}{{c1::Nominal}}{{c3::Multiple}} options, no…
Published	03/13/2024	likert type items{{c1::Ordinal}} survey questionsUsually has {{c1::5-7}} response options{{c2::Limited}} responses --> {{c3::closed-…
Published	03/13/2024	questionnairessurvey of questions designed to {{c1::gather data for a specific topic}}Often has {{c2::numeric}} values associatedCan be used…
Published	03/13/2024	analysisMost {{c1::cross-sectional}} analysis is purely {{c2::descriptive}}Summarize population {{c1::characteristics}}means or measure…
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Published	03/13/2024	{{c1::Sampling}} error -- sampled individuals do not {{c2::represent the target population}}how to reduce {{c1::sampling}} error 1) have a {{c3::clear…
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