Notes in Basic Endocrinology Midterm (9/24)

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Published	10/01/2024	f322d49247d549dd8aff1001f0e9a751-oa-1
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Published	10/01/2024	Anterior pituitary regulated primarily by {{c1::humoral agents (hypothalamic releasing hormones)}} from the {{c2::hypothalamus}}
Published	10/01/2024	Ependymal cells are a type of {{c1::glial cell}} surrounding {{c2::the ventral region of the hypothalamus.}}
Published	10/01/2024	The anterior pituitary gland develops from {{c1::Rathke's pouch}}
Published	10/01/2024	The posterior pituitary gland develops from {{c1::diencephalon}}
Published	10/01/2024	Posterior pituitary is regulated primarily by {{c1::neural connections}} from the {{c2::hypothalamus}}
Published	10/01/2024	Where is primary capillary bed/plexus found in the hypothalamus? {{c1::Median Eminence}}Secondary capillary plexus? {{c1::Anterior Pituitary}}
Published	10/01/2024	Median Eminence located in {{c2::hypothalamus near anterior pituitary}} that produces {{c1::Hypothalamic releasing hormones}} and {{c1::Hypothalamic i…
Published	10/01/2024	Neurons in the median eminence {{c1::release biogenic amines (dopamine, opamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline)—and…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Tanycytes}} are {{c2::glial cells}} whose cell bodies are embedded in the ependymal layer.
Published	10/01/2024	Tanycytes send projections to the {{c1::hypothalamus }}and also {{c1::extend to the portal vessels in the median eminence or pars tuberalis.}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)}} is an anterior pituitary hormone. ~40 A.A in length. Stimulates {{c2::adrenal cortex}} and secreted by {{c2…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)}} is a anterior pituitary hormone. It is a type of {{c2::glycoprotein}}. Stimulates {{c2::thyroid}} and secret…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) and LH (Leuteinizing Hormone)}} are anterior pituitary hormones. They are a type of glycoprotein. Stimulates …
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Growth Hormone (GH)}} is a anterior pituitary hormone. ~200 A.A in length. Stimulates {{c2::growth & affects metabolism}} and secreted by {{…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Prolactin}} is a anterior pituitary hormone. It is a type of {{c1::protein}}. Stimulates {{c2::breast, ovary, lymphoid tissue}} and secreted by …
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::ACTH}} can be cleaved into {{c3::α-MSH (Melanocyte stimulating hormone)}} which stimulates {{c1::melanocytes}} to produce {{c1::melanin, af…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::TRH or Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone}} is produced by {{c2::neurons in hypothalamus}}. Stimulates {{c2::TSH and prolactin release}}.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::GnRH or Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone}} is produced by {{c2::neurons in the hypothalamus}}. Stimulates {{c2::LH and FSH release}}. ~10 A.A in l…
Published	10/01/2024	The stomach has a large surface area due to its {{c1:: folds}}
Published	10/01/2024	Exocrine cells release products into {{c1::ducts or outside the body}}
Published	10/01/2024	Endocrine cells secrete into the {{c1::bloodstream}}
Published	10/01/2024	Parietal cells secrete {{c1::HCl (hydrochloric acid)}} into the {{c2::stomach}}
Published	10/01/2024	Chief cells secrete {{c1::pepsinogen}} into the {{c2::stomach}}
Published	10/01/2024	Pepsinogen is a {{c1::digestive enzyme}} that {{c2::breaks down protein}}
Published	10/01/2024	G cells found in the stomach secrete {{c1::gastrin}} into the {{c2::bloodstream}}
Published	10/01/2024	D cells secrete {{c1::somatostatin}} into the {{c2::bloodstream}}
Published	10/01/2024	Hormone biogenesis from the {{c1::ER}} to the {{c1::Golgi}} converts the hormone from {{c2::preprohormone}} to {{c2::prohormone}}
Published	10/01/2024	The function of "pre" in the preprohormone is that it {{c1::carries the signal sequence to the secretory pathway}}
Published	10/01/2024	Active gastrin is {{c1::shorter}} than the intially transcribed gastrin
Published	10/01/2024	The function of the "pre" in preprogastrin is to {{c1::direct it to the ER}}.
Published	10/01/2024	Hormone biogenesis from the {{c2::ER}} to the {{c2::apical membrane}} converts hormone from {{c1::prohormone}} to {{c1::mature hormone}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Proteases}} cleave gastrin into its active form
Published	10/01/2024	The hormone {{c1::Gastrin}} {{c2::stimulates}} {{c3::acid secretion}}
Published	10/01/2024	Name the three stimuli that gastrin is released in response to:
Published	10/01/2024	Gastrin release is {{c2::inhibited}} by the {{c1::presence of acid}} and {{c1::somatostatin}}
Published	10/01/2024	Somtostatin is a {{c1::peptide}} hormone
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::CRH (Corticotropin Releasing Hormone)}} released from hypothalamus. ~41 A.A in length. Stimulates {{c2::ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) relea…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Somatostatin}} inhibits 1.{{c1::HCL Secretion}} 2.{{c1::Gastrin Production}} 3.{{c1::Histamine secretion}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Somatostatin}} release is stimulated by {{c2::gastric acid}} and {{c2::gastrin}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::GHRH (Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone)}} secreted by hypothalamus. ~44 A.A. in length. Stimulates {{c1::GH Release}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Somatostatin}} release is inhibited by {{c1::acetylecholine (ACh)}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Somatostatin}} is secreted by hypothalamus neurons. ~14 A.A in length. Function: {{c1::Inhibits GH and TSH release}}
Published	10/01/2024	Increased concentration of peptides acid secretion because of ingestion of protein leads to an {{c1::increase}} in acid secretion
Published	10/01/2024	Before ingestion of food, acid concentration in the stomach is {{c1::high}} because there is little buffer. However, once protein enters the stomach H…
Published	10/01/2024	Parietal cells have lots of {{c1::folds}} which {{c2::increases H+ (acid) production}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::ECL cells (enterochromaffin-like-cells)}} secrete {{c1::histamine which promotes HCL secretion}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)}} secreted by {{c2::Hypothalamus}}. ~9 A.A in length Function: {{c1::Facilitates CRH action to increase ACTH secretio…
Published	10/01/2024	Intestine has a huge surface area because of {{c1::folds}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Dopamine }}function: {{c2::inhibits prolactin release}}. It is a type of {{c2::biogenic a…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::S cells of the intestine}} secrete {{c1::secretin}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::I cells of the intestine}} secrete {{c1::CCK (Cholecystokinin)}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::L cells of the intestine}} secrete {{c1::GLP-1 (glucagon like peptide)}}
Published	10/01/2024	The islets in the pancreas make up {{c1::2}}% of the pancreas
Published	10/01/2024	Secretin is a {{c2::polypeptide hormone}} and acts on {{c1::the exocrine pancreas}}
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic HormonesThings to remember about them:
Published	10/01/2024	Secretion of {{c1::Secretin}} is stimulated by {{c2::low pH}} due to the acidic chyme entering the small intestine from the stomach
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic Hormones are released in what manner?
Published	10/01/2024	Secretin is secreted as an {{c1::inactive}} form, becoming activated in the presence of {{c1::HCL}} in the chyme
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Secretin}} stimulates pancreatic duct cells to {{c2::release bicarbonate ion neutralizing acidic chyme.}}
Published	10/01/2024	Secretin is the {{c1::most powerful}} bicarbonate buffer inducer
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone)}} pulsatile releases are governed by {{c2::KNDy Neurons}}. These specialized neurons coexpresses thre…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c3::Neurokinin B}} stimulates {{c1::kisspeptin}} which stimulates {{c2::GnRH}}.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Dynorphin Peptide}} has {{c1::an inhibitory effect on GnRH pulses. }}
Published	10/01/2024	Neural Regulation of Hypothalamus By these factors:
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::CCK (Cholecystokinin)}} stimulates {{c2::pancreatic acinar cells for enzyme secretion}}
Published	10/01/2024	Acinar enzyme secretion makes inactive enzymes that only get activated {{c1::in the intestine}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::ACh}} and {{c1::secretin}} {{c2::stimulate bicarbonate secretion.}}
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal AxisInfluenced by {{c1::stress and circadian rhythms}}Stimulated by {{c1::CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) an…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Trypsin}} digests away the {{c2::CCK-releasing peptide and monitor peptide}} in both fasting and fed state
Published	10/01/2024	Food/protein sequesters {{c1::trypsin}} and this allows I cells to produce {{c2::CCK}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::I cells}} produce {{c1::CCK-RP (Releasing Peptide)}} and {{c2::Pancreas}} produces {{c1::monitor peptide}} and both together {{c3::bind to I cel…
Published	10/01/2024	ACTH pulses are related mostly to {{c1::dynamics of glucocorticoid feedback on pituitary.}} The {{c1::levels of CRH}} control ACTH secretion, not…
Published	10/01/2024	CCK is stimulated to release by {{c1::Fat, protein, amino acids}} in the duodenum, {{c1::CCK releasing peptide (CCK-RP)}} from duodenal endocrine cell…
Published	10/01/2024	What cells produce pepsinogen?  A. Parietal cells in the stomach B. Chief cells in the stomach  C. Hepatic cells  D. Ductal cells …
Published	10/01/2024	Which of the following stimulate(s) CCK release? A. Fat, protein and amino acids in the duodenumB. Monitor peptide from the duodenum C. Insulin from t…
Published	10/01/2024	Which of the following statement is correct for secretin? A. Secretin stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate, neutralizing acidic chyme B. Secreti…
Published	10/01/2024	Excess Cortisol causing tumor location percentages
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis{{c2::TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)}} stimulates {{c1::TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) Release}}{…
Published	10/01/2024	In the endocrine pancreas, B cells produce {{c1::insulin}}
Published	10/01/2024	In the endocrine pancreas, D cells produce {{c1::somatostatin}}
Published	10/01/2024	In the endocrine pancreas, alpha cells produce {{c1::glucagon}}
Published	10/01/2024	Insulin molecule: Which parts/chains of the peptide is the mature insulin?
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Diabetes Mellitus}} is a disorder of insulin synthesis/secretion and/or insulin signaling
Published	10/01/2024	The underlying problem of diabetes is {{c1::high blood glucose (hyperglycemia)}}.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Type 1 diabetes (5-10% diabetic patients)}} is triggered {{c2::by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, which results in nearly compl…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Type 2 diabetes (90-95% people with diabetes)}} starts {{c2::as insulin resistance and high glucose levels in the bloodstream}} followed by {{c2…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Insulin resistance}} is a state of diminished effectiveness of insulin because the target cells fail to respond to the normal actions of insulin
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic-Pituitary Testicular Axis (MALE!) 🧔‍♂️{{c1::GnRH AKA LHRH (Gonadotropin releasing hormone)}} regulates {{c2::LH and FSH secretion from anter…
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Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic-Pituitary Regulation of ProlactinProlactin Inhibited by {{c2::Dopamine}}Prolactin Stimulated by {{c1::TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)…
Published	10/01/2024	Treatments for {{c1::Hyperprolactinemia (high prolactin levels in blood)}} include {{c2::dopamine analogs such as Parlodel or Dostinex}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::High glucose}} causes {{c2::high ATP in B cells}} which triggers Insulin secretion.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Glucagon}} and {{c1::GLP-1}} are made from the same polypeptide
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::GLP-1 (Glucagon-like peptide-1)}} is in a class called {{c1::incretins}}.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::GLP-1}} lowers blood glucose but rarely causes {{c2::hypoglycemia}}
Published	10/01/2024	List 5 hormones synthesized in the liver
Published	10/01/2024	GLP-1 does not cause hypoglycemia because {{c1::it does trigger Ca2+ increase}} which is needed for insulin exocytosis.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::DDP-4}} enzyme inactivates {{c1::GLP-1}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Renin}} converts {{c2::angiotensinogen (produced in liver)}} into {{c2::angiotensin I}}.
Published	10/01/2024	Proinsulin is made in which subcellular compartment?a. Endoplasmic reticulum b. Cytosol c. Secretory granules d. Mitochondria
Published	10/01/2024	DPP-4 inhibitor can increase the half-life of GLP-1 in the blood and therefore can? a. Stimulate glucagon release b. Inhibit insulin release c. Lower …
Published	10/01/2024	Anti-T2D medicationsMetformin functions by being {{c1::first-line medication for the treatment of T2D. Its main effect is to decrease hepatic glucose …
Published	10/01/2024	Anti-T2D medicationsSulfonylureas {{c1::act by increasing insulin release from the beta cells in the pancreas.}}
Published	10/01/2024	Anti-T2D medicationsDPP-4 inhibitors or gliptins: {{c1::increase incretin levels to inhibit glucagon release and increase insulin secretion.}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::ACE (Angiotensin Converting Enzyme)}}, located in the {{c1::lungs}} converts {{c2::angiotensin I}} into {{c2::angiotensin II}}
Published	10/01/2024	Anti-T2D medicationsSGLT2 inhibitors or gliflozins {{c1::: by inhibiting sodium-glucose transport protein 2 (SGLT2), they inhibit reabsorption of gluc…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Stem cell therapies}} can aid in managent of T1D
Published	10/01/2024	Sympathetic Innervation stimulates {{c1::glucose production and releasesecretion of adrenaline and noradrenalineinhibits bladder contractioninhibits p…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Betatrophin}} induces {{c2::proliferation of pancreatic Beta cells}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Betatrophin}} can impact {{c1::T1 Diabetes}} significantly due to its proliferating pancreatic beta cells capabilities
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Hepciden}} regulates {{c1::iron homeostasis}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Anemia of Inflammation}} is when {{c2::levels of iron in blood is chronically low due to infections (bacteria). }}How might hepciden help w…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Juvenile Hemochromatosis, iron overload,}} is a disorder where a mutation in the HAMP gene {{c2::downregulates (decreases sensitivity of) hepcid…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Thrombopoietin (TPO)}} (This does what?) {{c2::proliferates and differentiates cellular processes (megakaryopoiesus)}} that {{c2::leads to plate…
Published	10/01/2024	Thrombopoietin is primarily produced by {{c1::liver and kidneys}}
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamic-Pituitary Growth Hormone Axis 💪Growth hormone is released by the {{c1::anterior pituitary}}Two stimulatory factors for growth hormone are…
Published	10/01/2024	Acromegaly before puberty {{c1::allows you to grow taller}} but after puberty you {{c2::cannot}}
Published	10/01/2024	When platelet levels are {{c2::high}}, the amount of circulating thrombopoietin (TPO) is {{c1::low}}. When platelet levels are {{c2::low}}, the amount…
Published	10/01/2024	Instead of GH levels peaking during sleep, acromegaly patients secrete growth hormone at levels {{c1::equally no matter time of day.}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::IGF-1}} is also known as {{c1::somatomedin}}
Published	10/01/2024	To prevent {{c2::hemorrhage}} platelets go through a three step process {{c1::adhesion, activation, and aggregation}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Pituicytes}} are glial cells found in posterior pituitary
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Thrombocytopenia}} is condition where {{c2::there isn't enough platelets}}. Symptoms include spontaneous bleeding from eyes, gums, nose and blad…
Published	10/01/2024	The {{c1::supraoptic}} nucleus primarily synthesizes {{c2::ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)}}.
Published	10/01/2024	The {{c1::paraventricular}} nucleus primarily synthesizes {{c2::oxytocin}}
Published	10/01/2024	Another name for somatostatin: {{c1::Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone}}
Published	10/01/2024	ADH and Oxytocin are Synthesized as {{c1::preprohormones}}
Published	10/01/2024	In magnocellular neurons, vasopressin is synthesized in the {{c1::supraoptic nucleus}} and oxytocin in the {{c2::paraventricular nucleus}}.They are bo…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::ADH}} is also known as {{c1::vasopressin}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::ADH}} increases {{c1::permeability of distal neuron to water}}
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Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Decreases}} in blood volume {{c2::increases}} water retention through ADH
Published	10/01/2024	Physiology of ADH action on KidneyADH increases water retention by increasing the number of {{c1::aquaporins}}Water moves from {{c2::urine}} back…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::IGF-1}} function: {{c2::regulate growth by targeting bone, muscle, and fat tissue.}}
Published	10/01/2024	Baroreceptors in carotid sinus {{c1::detect blood pressure}} which stimulates {{c2::secretion of ADH}}
Published	10/01/2024	Hypothalamus contains cells that {{c2::detect osmolality}}, if osmolality increases then {{c1::ADH is released}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c3::IGF-1}} increases {{c1::growth hormone inhibiting hormone or somatostatin}} in the periventricular region which {{c2::decreases GH release.}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::IGF-1}} inhibits {{c2::growth hormone releasing hormone}} which decreases {{c2::GH release}}.
Published	10/01/2024	Diabetes Insipidus is characterized by {{c1::low serum ADH}} or an {{c1::unresponsive nephron}}, leading to symptoms such as {{c2::polyuria}} and {{c2…
Published	10/01/2024	Central Diabetes Insipidus results from a {{c1::hypothalamic or pituitary problem}}, leading to {{c1::low secretion of ADH}}.Nephrogenic Diabetes Insi…
Published	10/01/2024	Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) involves {{c1::too much ADH}} being released, potentially due to a {{c2::hypothalamic tumor}} or {{c2::ectopic A…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Laron Dwarfism}} is caused by {{c1::mutations in the gene for the GH receptor}}.Treatment: Biosynthetic IGF-1 must be taken before puberty to be…
Published	10/01/2024	The hypothalmic area most important for regulating ADH release is the:
Published	10/01/2024	The common threat between {{c2::SIADH and diabetes insipidus}} is that both disease you have {{c1::excessive thirst}}
Published	10/01/2024	Oxytocin stimulates the {{c1::contraction of myoepithelial cells}} surrounding the {{c2::mammary alveoli}} during milk ejection. Suckling of the infan…
Published	10/01/2024	Which cells in this image does oxytocin act on?
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Cholecalciferol}}, a hormone of the skin, is inactive Vitamin D. It is transported to the {{c2::liver}} and converted to {{c2::calcifediol}}. It…
Published	10/01/2024	Oxytocin stimulates the {{c1::contraction of the uterine myometrium}} during labor.
Published	10/01/2024	The response of the uterus to oxytocin depends on the balance between {{c1::estrogen}} and {{c2::progesterone}}
Published	10/01/2024	During labor, stretching of the vagina and cervix stimulates {{c1::oxytocin secretion}} which facilitates labor
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Erythropoietin (EPO)}} stimulates {{c2::the production of erythrocytes (erythropoiesis)}}
Published	10/01/2024	OxytocinA. Acts mostly on myoepithelial cells in the breast  B. Stimulates milk ejection  C. Stimulates uterine contraction during labor&nbs…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Erythropoietin synthesis}} is stimulated by {{c1::hypoxic conditions in the kidney detected by oxygen sensors}}
Published	10/01/2024	What causes this pattern in running animals?
Published	10/01/2024	A circadian rhythm is an {{c1::endogenously}} generated rhythm with a period close to but not exactly 24 h.
Published	10/01/2024	{{c2::Zeitgebers}} are stimuli that give sense of {{c1::time}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Blood Doping}} is when you inject {{c2::ESA's (erythropoietin stimulating agents) ---> erythropoietin}} in the body allowing it to natur…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Suprachiasmatic Nucelus (SCN)}} is the {{c2::master biological clock}}
Published	10/01/2024	Under constant environemntal conditions, circadian rhythms {{c1::continue with a period close to but not exactly 24hours.}}
Published	10/01/2024	In an {{c2::SCN legioned}} animal circadian rhythms {{c1::disappear}}
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Calcitriol or Vitamin D}} whose main function is to {{c2::regulate circulating levels ofcalcium in the body (increases calcium in bloodstream fr…
Published	10/01/2024	{{c1::Vitamin D or calcitriol}} stimulates osteoblasts (synthesize new bone) to release RANK ligand (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B) whi…
Published	10/01/2024	Vitamin D Deficiency Leads to
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