Notes in 2. Physiology

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Published	02/10/2024	The main dietary constituents (macronutrients) are {{c1::carbohydrate}}, {{c1::protein}}, {{c1::fat}}.
Published	02/10/2024	The types of carbohydrates are {{c1::Monosaccharides}}, {{c1::Disaccharides}}, {{c1::Polysaccharides}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Monosaccharides, e.g. {{c1::glucose}}, {{c1::galactose}}, {{c1::fructose}}, are breakdown products of complex CHO and are absorbed by the {{c2::small …
Published	02/10/2024	Disaccharides, e.g. {{c1::lactose}}, {{c1::sucrose}}, {{c1::maltose}}, are broken into monomers by {{c2::brush border enzymes}} in the small intestine…
Published	02/10/2024	Lactose is made up of {{c1::glucose}} + {{c1::galactose}} and broken down by {{c2::Lactase}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Sucrose is made up of {{c1::glucose}} + {{c1::fructose}} and broken down by {{c2::Sucrase}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Maltose is made up of {{c1::glucose}} + {{c1::glucose}} and broken down by {{c2::Maltase}}.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lactase}}, {{c1::Sucrase}}, {{c1::Maltase}} are brush border enzymes that break down Disaccharides
Published	02/10/2024	Polysaccharides, e.g. {{c1::starch}}, {{c1::cellulose}}, {{c1::glycogen}}, are complex carbohydrates that are linked by glycosidic bonds.
Published	02/10/2024	Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is formed by linkage of {{c1::beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds}} which can only be broken down by {{c2::Cellulase}} that i…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Salivary Amylase}} and {{c1::Pancreatic Amylase}} are enzymes used to break down {{c2::alpha-1,4 glycosidic}} bonds that are foun…
Published	02/10/2024	Inner surface of epithelia is called the {{c1::Apical}} surface, while the Outer surface is called the {{c1::Basolateral}} surface.
Published	02/10/2024	Methods of epithelial transport:[1] {{c1::Transcellular}} ‒ through cells[2] {{c1::Paracellular}} ‒ between cells via tight junction complexes[3]&nbsp…
Published	02/10/2024	The inside of an GI epithelial cell is relatively {{c1::negative}} to the outside due to the presence of the {{c2::Na+ / K+ Pump}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::SGLT1}} is a transport protein found on the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cells, it has a binding site for both {{c2::Na+}}…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::GLUT2}} is a facilitated transporter found on the basolateral membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cells, which allows the move…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::GLUT5}} is a transport protein found on the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cells, which allows the movement of {{c…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::SGLT1}} is a transporter protein is responsible for the movement of Na & Glucose (or Galactose) and eventually Water follows via c…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Proteins}} are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
Published	02/10/2024	Post-translational modifications of proteins:Addition of CHO → {{c1::Glycoprotein}}Addition of lipid → {{c1::Lipoprotein}}
Published	02/10/2024	Enzymes which hydrolyse peptide bonds and reduce proteins or peptides to amino acids are called {{c1::proteases}} or {{c1::peptidases}}.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Endopeptidase}} are enzymes that act on the interior amino acids on a protein{{c1::Exopeptidase}} are enzymes that act on the terminal amino aci…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Aminopeptidase}} is an exopeptidase that acts on the terminal amino acid with an amino branch.{{c1::Carboxypeptidase}} is an exopeptidase that a…
Published	02/10/2024	What type of transport mechanism is Na+/glucose cotransport?{{c1::Secondary active transport}}
Published	02/10/2024	The majority of amino acid absorption into the GI epithelial cells is {{c1::Na+ dependant (secondary active transport)::type}}
Published	02/10/2024	Dipeptides and tripeptides are transported from the intestinal lumen into the cells by {{c1::H+}}-mediated cotransport w…
Published	02/10/2024	Almost all ingested fat is in the form of {{c1::triacylglycerol}} which is a glycerol molecule bonded with 3 stearic acids.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Lipase}} is a pancreatic enzyme that degrades dietary triglycerides in the small intestine.triacylglycerol → monoglyceride + 2 fatty acids
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Emulsification}} is the division of large lipid droplets into smaller droplets.→ increases surface area and accessibility to lipase action.
Published	02/10/2024	The bile salts and phospholipids in bile are {{c1::amphipathic}} molecules, which allows for the emulsification and&nbsp…
Published	02/10/2024	Emulsification requires three main processes:[1] {{c1::Lipid Divider (Pancreatic lipase)}}[2] {{c1::Muscle contraction (Peristalsis + Segmentation)}}&…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Amphiphatic}} molecules have polar external surface and non-polar inner surface to allow emulsification and solubilization in water and repulsio…
Published	02/10/2024	a {{c1::Micelle}} is an amphipathic final packaging of lipid comprised of bile salt + monoglycerides + fatty acids + phospholipids to allow for moveme…
Published	02/10/2024	Micelles break down close to the small intestinal cells due to the {{c1::acidity}} of the area, which then allows diffusion of FFA and monoglycerides …
Published	02/10/2024	After the diffusion of FFAs + monoacylglycerols into the epithelial cells they are reformed into triacylglycerols via the {{c1::smooth endoplasmic ret…
Published	02/10/2024	Triacylglycerols finally undergo exocytosis as {{c1::Chylomicrons}} into areas known as {{c1::Lacteals}} which are part of the lymphatic system.
Published	02/10/2024	Fat soluble vitamins, like {{c1::A ‒ D ‒ E ‒ K}}, are processed as fat and stored in micelles then chylomicrons, along with TAGs.
Published	02/10/2024	Water-soluble vitamins, like {{c1::B group, C and folic acid}}, are absorbed by either passive diffusion or carrier-mediated transport.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c2::Vitamin B12}} binds to {{c1::intrinsic factor}} in stomach to form a complex which is absorbed via specific transport mechanism in dis…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Vitamin B12 deficiency}}, causes a condition known as pernicious anaemia, which is failure of RBC maturation.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Iron}} is transported across brush border membrane via {{c2::DMT1}} into duodenal enterocytes
Published	02/10/2024	Absorbed Iron is either incorporated intracellularly as {{c1::ferritin}} which is a protein-iron complexor transported into blood and bound to {{c1::t…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Hyperaemia}} is a condition associated with increased ferritin levels which means more iron is stored in enterocytes.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Anaemia}} is a condition associated with decreased ferritin levels which means more iron is released to blood.
Published	02/10/2024	Voluntary control of chewing is via the {{c1::somatic}} nerves that innervate the skeletal muscles of the mouth/jaw
Published	02/10/2024	Reflex control of chewing is via the {{c1::mechanoreceptors}} that sense the pressure of the food against the oral cavity.
Published	02/10/2024	Salivary secretion glands: [1] {{c1::Parotid}}[2] {{c1::Submandibular}}[3] {{c1::Sublingual}}
Published	02/10/2024	Components of Saliva:[1] {{c1::Water}}[2] {{c1::Mucins}} → major protein component that forms mucus[3] {{c1::Alpha-amylase}} → breakdown polysaccharid…
Published	02/10/2024	The salivary glands are {{c1::exocrine}} glands.They are made up of {{c2::mucuous}} and {{c2::serous}} alveolus
Published	02/10/2024	Parasympathetic control of Salivary Secretion:Source: {{c1::facial nerve (VII)}} and {{c1::glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)}}Action: {{c2::stimulation of w…
Published	02/10/2024	Sympathetic control of Salivary Secretion:Source: mucus via {{c1::alpha-1 adrenoceptors}} and amylase via {{c1::beta-2 adrenoceptors}}Action: {{c2::st…
Published	02/10/2024	What effect does vagotomy* have on salivary secretion? *i.e. dissection of vagus nerve{{c1::No effect}}
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::Oesophagus}} is a conduit between pharynx and stomach.
Published	02/10/2024	The muscularis externa of the Stomach is made up of three muscles:‒ {{c1::Longitudinal (outer)}} ‒ {{c1::Circular (middle)}} ‒ {{c1::Oblique (inner)}}
Published	02/10/2024	The body of the stomach produces 4 important moleucles:[1] {{c1::Mucus}} → gooey substance for protection[2] {{c1::HCl}} → breakdown of food[3] {{c1::…
Published	02/10/2024	The antrum of the stomach contains G cells that produce a hormone called {{c1::Gastrin}}
Published	02/10/2024	Cellular composition of Gastric glands:[1] {{c1::Mucous neck cells}}[2] {{c1::Parietal cells}}[3] {{c1::Chief cells}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c2::Mucus}} is produced by {{c1::mucuous neck}} cells and {{c1::surface mucous}} cells in the body of the stomach
Published	02/10/2024	{{c2::HCl}} and {{c2::Intrinsic factor}} are produced by {{c1::parietal}} cells in the body of the stomach
Published	02/10/2024	{{c2::Pepsinogens}} are produced by {{c1::chief}} cells in the body of the stomach
Published	02/10/2024	Secretion of HCl by Parietal cells:[1] {{c1::CO2 as a waste product in blood}}[2] {{c1::CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 with Carbonic Anhydrase as an…
Published	02/10/2024	Regulation of Hydrogen/Potassium ATPase is controlled by four molecules:[1] {{c1::Gastrin}}[2] {{c1::Histamine}}[3] {{c1::Acetylcholine}}[4] {{c1::Pro…
Published	02/10/2024	Regulation of Hydrogen/Potassium ATPase by Gastrin:[1] {{c1::Gastrin binds to receptor = ↑ Ca}}[2] {{c1::Ca acts on Protein Kinase C}}[3] {{c1::Protei…
Published	02/10/2024	Regulation of Hydrogen/Potassium ATPase by Histamine:[1] {{c1::Histamine binds to receptor = initiation of Gs-coupled reaction}} [2] {{c1::Stimul…
Published	02/10/2024	Regulation of Hydrogen/Potassium ATPase by Acetylcholine:[1] {{c1::Acetylcholine binds to receptor = ↑ Ca}}[2] {{c1::Ca acts on Protein Kinase C}}[3] …
Published	02/10/2024	Regulation of Hydrogen/Potassium ATPase by Prostaglandin:[1] {{c1::Prostaglandin binds to receptor = initiation of GI-coupled reaction}}[2] {{c1::Inhi…
Published	02/10/2024	Gastric acid secretion (HCl) is controlled by three mechanisms:Neurocrine → release of {{c1::acetylcholine}} from vagus/local reflexes Endocrine …
Published	02/10/2024	Mechanisms Stimulating Gastric Acid Secretion[A] Cephalic Phase→ Sight, smell, taste of food leads to:[1] ↑ vagal activity = {{c1::↑ ACh in Parie…
Published	02/10/2024	Mechanisms Inhibiting Gastric Acid Secretion[A] Cephalic PhaseStopping eating = {{c1::↓ vagal activity}}[B] Gastric Phase↓ pH (i.e. HCl…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Enterogastrones}} are hormones released from gland cells in duodenal mucosa e.g. {{c2::secretin}}, {{c2::cholecystokinin (CCK)}}, {{c2::GIP…
Published	02/10/2024	Strategies of enterogastrones to prevent acid build-up in duodenum:[1] {{c1::inhibit gastric acid secretion}}[2] {{c1::reduce gastric emptying (inhibi…
Published	02/10/2024	Pepsinogen (inactive) is converted into Pepsin (active) in the conditions of {{c1::low pH/presence of H+}}
Published	02/10/2024	Mechanisms for pepsin control or pepsin secretion parallel HCl secretion:Meaning that: {{c1::ACh}} + {{c1::Gastrin}} + {{c1::Histamine}} stimulate the…
Published	02/10/2024	Mucus has a cytoprotective role:[1] Surface sheet → {{c1::protects mucosal surface from mechanical injury}}[2] pH level → {{c1::neutral pH (HCO3) give…
Published	02/10/2024	One cause of {{c1::pernicious}} anemia is lack of {{c2::intrinsic factor}}, which leads to vitamin {{c3::…
Published	02/10/2024	Intrinsic factor/B12 complex absorbed from the {{c1::ileum}}
Published	02/10/2024	Mixture of digested food in the stomach occurs due to contraction of the {{c1::antrum}} and the {{c1::pyloric sphincter}}
Published	02/10/2024	Why does digested food in the stomach move slowly into the duodenum (via pyloric sphincter contraction)?[1] {{c1::To avoid an osmotic flux of water in…
Published	02/10/2024	Which GIT nerve plexus is primarily responsible for peristalsis?{{c1::Myenteric plexus found between longitudinal and circular muscles}}
Published	02/10/2024	Peristaltic rhythm (Motility) control by the Myenteric plexus:Mention some features of the produced waves:[1] Slow waves with spontaneous {{c1::d…
Published	02/10/2024	Peristaltic rhythm (Motility) control by neural/hormonal pathways:[1] Release of {{c1::Gastrin}} → increase contraction[2] {{c1::Distension of st…
Published	02/10/2024	Mucus is secreted into the GI tract via {{c1::Brunner}} glands in the duodenum
Published	02/10/2024	Brunner glands secrete a mucus-rich secretion that contains {{c1::HCO3-}} to neutralize the acidity of the digested food in the duodenu…
Published	02/10/2024	Control of Duodenal HCO3 Secretion[1] {{c1::Long (vagal) & short (ENS) reflexes}} [2] {{c1::Release of secretin from S cells}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Secretin}} is a molecule produced by S cells that stimulate {{c2::HCO3-}} secretion and fluid secretion from the pancreas and liver
Published	02/10/2024	Relation between HCO3 and secretin{{c1::Secretin stimulates HCO3 release from pancreas}} → {{c1::HCO3 causes Acid neutralisation}}…
Published	02/10/2024	The endocrine portion of the pancreas is known as the {{c1::pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)}}It produces:[1] {{c2::insulin}} and {{c2::glucag…
Published	02/10/2024	The exocrine portion of the pancreas is responsible for digestive function via releasing bicarbonate and digestive enzymes by ducts into the {{c1…
Published	02/10/2024	The muscle responsible for controlling bile release into the duodenum is known as the {{c1::Sphincter of Oddi}}
Published	02/10/2024	Function of Exocrine Pancreas[1] Secretion of {{c1::bicarbonate}} by duct cells[2] Secretion of {{c1::digestive enzymes (inactive form)}}&nb…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::pancreatic}} duct joins the {{c1::common bile}} duct to form a single duct into the duodenum called the Ampulla of Vater
Published	02/10/2024	Acinar cells contain digestive enzymes stored as {{c1::inactive zymogen}} granules→ Prevents autodigestion of pancreas
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Enterokinase}} is a brush border duodenal enzyme that converts {{c2::trypsinogen}} to {{c2::trypsin}}
Published	02/10/2024	Categories of Pancreatic Enzymes[1] {{c1::Proteases}} → {{c2::Cleave peptide bonds}}[2] {{c1::Nucleases}} → {{c2::Hydrolyse DNA/RNA}}[3] {{c1::Elastas…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Bicarbonate}} secretion by the pancreas is stimulated by {{c2::secretin}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Secretin}} is released by the pancreas in response to {{c2::acid}} in duodenum
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Zymogen}} secretion by the pancreas via acinar cells is stimulated by {{c2::cholecystokinin (CCK)}} which is an enterogastrone.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Cholecystokinin (CCK)}} is released in response to presence of {{c2::fat}} or {{c2::amino acids}} in duodenum
Published	02/10/2024	Release of {{c1::Secretin}} and {{c1::Cholecystokinin (CKK)}}, which are two enterogastrones, can also be under {{c2::neural control (vagal/Iocal refl…
Published	02/10/2024	Mention Name or Release pathway of molecule[1] {{c2::Bicarbonate}} → {{c1::secretion stimulated by secretin}}[2] {{c2::Secretin}} → {{c1::released in …
Published	02/10/2024	The enterogastrone responsible for {{c2::neutralization}} of intestinal acid in the duodenum is {{c1::secretin}} which stimulates release of…
Published	02/10/2024	The enterogastrone responsible for {{c2::digestion of fats and protein}} in the duodenum is {{c1::cholecystokinin (CCK)}} which stimulates t…
Published	02/10/2024	The enterogastrone responsible for {{c2::inhibition}} of gastric secretion in the duodenum is {{c1::Gastric inhibitory peptide/Glucose-insul…
Published	02/10/2024	Overview of biliary tree:{{c1::Common hepatic duct}} + {{c1::Cystic duct}} → {{c1::Common bile duct}} + {{c1::Pancreatic duct}} → {{c1::Hepa…
Published	02/10/2024	Structure of Liver[1] {{c1::Portal triad}} at the corner of each lobule made up of {{c1::(hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic duct)}}[2] {{c1…
Published	02/10/2024	In the liver, mixture of blood from the GI ({{c1::O2 depleted/nutrient rich}}) and the heart ({{c1::O2 rich/nutrient depleted}}) makes …
Published	02/10/2024	The primary role of hepatocytes is the synthesis of {{c1::bile}} which goes into the cannaliculi then the hepatic ducts.
Published	02/10/2024	Hepatocytes can store excess glucose as {{c1::glycogen}} in the liver.
Published	02/10/2024	Mention the six components of bile:[1] {{c1::Bile acids}} → Solubilise fat[2] {{c1::Lecithin}} → Solubilise fat[3] {{c1::Cholesterol}} →&nbs…
Published	02/10/2024	All of the components of bile are secreted by hepatocytes except {{c1::HCO3}} which is secreted by the pancreas.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Bile Pigments}} are breakdown products of haemoglobin from old/damaged erythrocytes
Published	02/10/2024	The reason why bile is yellow is:{{c1::Bilirubin (predominant bile pigment) is extracted from blood by hepatocytes and secreted into bile}}
Published	02/10/2024	The reason why faeces are brown is:{{c1::Bilirubin is modified by bacterial enzymes → brown pigments}}
Published	02/10/2024	The reason why urine is yellow is:{{c1::Reabsorbed bilirubin is excreted in urine}}
Published	02/10/2024	Before secretion, bile acids are conjugated with {{c1::glycine}} or {{c1::taurine}} to become bile saltsThe reason of this conjugation is → {{c2::incr…
Published	02/10/2024	Bile salts are synthesised in the liver from {{c1::cholesterol}} ‒ about (0.5g/day)
Published	02/10/2024	Layers of gallbladder:[1] {{c1::Mucosa}} → (folded → rugae → expansion) [2] {{c1::Muscularis}} → (smooth muscle) → contractio…
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::sphincter of Oddi}} is a muscular structure that controls release of bile and pancreatic juice into duodenumContraction → bile forced b…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Cholecystokinin (CCK)}} is an enterogastrone that causes the[A] {{c2::Relaxation of sphincter of Oddi}}[B] {{c2::Contraction of gallbladder}}&nb…
Published	02/10/2024	Discharge of bile into the duodenum because of Cholecystokinin (CCK) leads to {{c1::fat solubilisation}}
Published	02/10/2024	SecretinStimulus: Presence of {{c1::acid}} in duodenumRole:[1] {{c2::↓ Gastric acid secretion}}[2] {{c2::↓ Gastric emptying}}[3] {{c2::↑ Duodenal/Panc…
Published	02/10/2024	Cholecystokinin (CCK)Stimulus: Presence of {{c1::fat/amino acids}} in duodenumRole:[1] {{c2::↓ Gastric emptying}}[2] {{c2::↑ Pancreatic enzyme secreti…
Published	02/10/2024	The vast majority of nutrient absorption occurs in the {{c1::jejunum}} of the small intestine
Published	02/10/2024	The primary role of the ileum is absorption of {{c1::NaCl}} and {{c1::H2O}} for dehydration of chyme.
Published	02/10/2024	The absorptive ability of the small intestine is enhanced via the presence of {{c1::folds}}, {{c1::villi}}, {{c1::microvilli}} which increase the surf…
Published	02/10/2024	Intestinal absorption is mediated by {{c1::villus}} cells while secretion is mediated by {{c1::crypt}} cells
Published	02/10/2024	the Small intestine secretes ~{{c1::1500ml}} H2O per day
Published	02/10/2024	H2O and Cl- secretion comes from short glands known as {{c1::crypts of Lieberkuhn}} lining the intestinal epithelial cells.
Published	02/10/2024	Describe the movement of chloride from crypt cells and its relation to water.[1] {{c1::Sodium-Potassium-Chloride co-transporter which moves Cl- i…
Published	02/10/2024	The rate limiting factor in Cl- movement out of crypt cells is regulation of {{c1::CFTR}} protein through {{c1::Adenylate/Adenlyl Cycla…
Published	02/10/2024	Adenlyl Cyclase works by converting {{c1::ATP}} to {{c1::cAMP}} which then acts on {{c1::PKA}} to do an activity.i.e. stimulating CFTR protein or stim…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Segmentation}} is a {{c2::motility movement that occurs during meal and involves cycles of contraction and relaxation of intestinal segments tha…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Segmentation Contractions}} are initiated by depolarisation that is generated by {{c2::pacemaker}} cells in {{c2::longitudinal}} muscle lay…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Intestinal basic electrical rhythm (BER)}} is a rhythm that produces oscillations in the membrane potential (sub-threshold) to hit threshol…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Action potential frequency}} determines the strength of segmentation contractions in the small intestine.
Published	02/10/2024	Frequency of segmentation determined by {{c1::basic electrical rhythm (BER)}} which decreases as you move down from the intestine to the rectum.
Published	02/10/2024	PNS effect → {{c1::increases}} intestinal segmentation contractions.
Published	02/10/2024	SNS effect → {{c1::decreases}} intestinal segmentation contractions.
Published	02/10/2024	Autonomic effect → {{c1::no effect on}} basic electrical rhythm
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Migrating Motility Complex (MMC)}} is a pattern of peristaltic activity that starts from stomach (starts in gastric antrum) and travels dow…
Published	02/10/2024	Arrival of food in stomach → cessation of {{c1::Migrating Motility Complex (MMC)}} and initiation of {{c1::segmentation}} in the small intestine
Published	02/10/2024	Function of Migrating Motility Complex (MMC):[1] {{c1::Move undigested material into large intestine}}[2] {{c1::Limit bacterial colonisation of small …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Motilin}} is a hormone that initates {{c2::Migrating Motility Complex (MMC)}} in the small intestine, and gets increasingly secreted during fast…
Published	02/10/2024	the Law of the Intestine says that bolus must move from {{c1::oral}} to {{c1::anal}} side under mediation from the {{c1::myenteric}} plexus.
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Gastroileal Reflex}} is a reflex that occurs directly after gastric emptying which results in segmentation activity in the ileum.→ leads to open…
Published	02/10/2024	The four parts of the large intestine are {{c1::ascending}}, {{c1::transverse}}, {{c1::descending}}, {{c1::sigmoid}}
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::rectum}} is a straight muscular tube located between end of sigmoid colon and anal canal.
Published	02/10/2024	The {{c1::anal canal}} is a muscular tube located between the rectum and anus.Transitions from simple columnar to stratified squamous epithelium
Published	02/10/2024	In comparison to herbivores, the {{c1::large intestine (colon)}} has no important nutrient absorption role in humans.
Published	02/10/2024	Faeces becomes solid in the colon due to:{{c1::active transport of sodium from lumen into blood}} → {{c1::osmotic absorption of water}} leads to dehyd…
Published	02/10/2024	Products of bacterical fermentation of undigested carbohydrate in colon:[1] {{c1::Short chain fatty acids (energy source in ruminants)}}[2] {{c1::Vita…
Published	02/10/2024	Process of Defaecation Following a meal:[1] Wave of {{c1::peristaltic contraction (Mass Movement Contraction)}} from colon to rectum[2] Dist…
Published	02/10/2024	Defaecation reflex is only controlled {{c2::parasympathetically}} via the {{c1::pelvic splanchnic}} nerves
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Constipation}} is a condition associated with difficulty passing stool.Symptoms occur due to prolonged distension of rectumi.e. Headaches, Nause…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Diarrhoea}} is a condition associated with frequently passing liquidy faeces
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Enterotoxigenic}} Bacteria produce protein enterotoxins which maximally turn on intestinal {{c2::chloride}} secretion from crypt cells…
Published	02/10/2024	Treatment of Secretory DiarrhoeaOral rehydration therapy via {{c1::clean water, sodium/glucose solution}}
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Gastrin}} is produced by {{c2::G cells}} which are located in the antrum of the stomach
Published	02/10/2024	Bile salts are reabsorbed in the {{c1::distal ileum}} and returned to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
Published	02/10/2024	Pepsin requires an {{c1::acidic}} environment to catalyse the hydrolysis of peptide bonds
Published	02/10/2024	Trypsin and all other digestive enzymes are stored and secreted as {{c1::zymogens}}
Published	02/10/2024	Trypsinogens are converted to trypsin in the duodenal lumen by brush border {{c1::enterokinase}}.
Published	02/10/2024	Stimulatory Cephalic Phase is activated via the {{c1::sight, smell, taste of food}} which leads to an increase in {{c1::vagal}} activity releasing {{c…
Published	02/10/2024	Stimulatory Gastric Phase is activated via the {{c1::distension of stomach}} which leads to an increase in {{c1::vagal}} activity releasing {{c2::ACh}…
Published	02/10/2024	Inhibitory Cephalic Phase is activated via {{c1::stopping eating}} which leads to a decrease in {{c1::vagal}} activity
Published	02/10/2024	Inhibitory Gastric Phase is activated via a reduction in {{c1::pH}} which leads to a decrease in release of {{c1::Gastrin}} → Self-limiting mecha…
Published	02/10/2024	Inhibitory Intestinal Phase is activated via the presence of {{c1::Acid}} in duodenum activating {{c1::enterogastric (splanchnic)}} reflex and releasi…
Published	02/10/2024	Inhibitory Intestinal Phase is also activated via the presence of {{c1::Fat}} and {{c1::CHO}} in duodenum releasing {{c1::Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (…
Published	02/10/2024	Gut Motility is made up of three movements:[1] {{c1::Segmentation}} → antero/retrograde movement to mix chyme and enhance absorption[2] {{c1::Peristal…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Gamma GT}} is a non specific liver enzyme that gets elevated with alcohol usage, it is used as an investigation to confirm liver source of ALP. …
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Albumin test}} is an important test for synthetic function of liverLow levels suggest {{c2::chronic liver disease}}, {{c2::kidney disorders…
Published	02/10/2024	{{c1::Prothrombin time test}} is an extremely important test for liver function.→ Tells degree of liver dysfunction→ Used to calculate scores to decid…
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