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Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA}} is the heritable material that transmits genetic information from one generation to another.
Published	11/14/2024	The expression of information encoded in DNA is mediated by {{c1::RNA}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Both DNA and RNA are composed of building blocks called {{c1::nucleotides}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Asexual reproduction}} involves a single parent producing genetically identical offspring.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Sexual reproduction}} involves two parents contributing genetic material to produce genetically unique offspring.
Published	11/14/2024	In prokaryotic cells, DNA is typically stored as a single {{c1::circular chromosome}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into several distinct {{c1::linear chromosomes}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Coding DNA consists of {{c1::genes}}, which contain information needed for protein production.
Published	11/14/2024	The information in a gene is converted to RNA through a process called {{c1::transcription}}.
Published	11/14/2024	For genes encoding a protein, the RNA becomes {{c1::messenger RNA (mRNA)::type of RNA}} after transcription.
Published	11/14/2024	Noncoding DNA regions are involved in the maintenance of  {{c1::chromosomal integrity}} and regulation of {{c1::gene expression}} (roles of …
Published	11/14/2024	DNA and RNA differ in their sugar component: deoxyribonucleotides contain {{c1::deoxyribose}}, whereas ribonucleotides contain {{c1::ribose}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Both DNA and RNA contain the purines {{c1::adenine (A) and guanine (G)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA contains the pyrimidine {{c1::thymine (T)}}, while RNA contains the pyrimidine {{c1::uracil (U)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Nucleotides in nucleic acids are linked together by {{c1::phosphodiester bonds (covalent)::type of bond}} between the 3′ and 5′ ends of adjacent nucle…
Published	11/14/2024	DNA is composed of two nucleic acid strands that form a {{c1::double helix}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In DNA, the {{c1::sugar-phosphate backbone}} faces outward while the {{c1::nitrogenous bases}} face inward.
Published	11/14/2024	In DNA, adenine (A) always pairs with {{c1::thymine (T)}}
Published	11/14/2024	RNA can form a loop called a {{c1::hairpin}} by bringing complementary bases within the strand into proximity.
Published	11/14/2024	When two nucleic acid strands join in a double helix, they are said to be {{c1::hybridized or annealed}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The process of separating hybridized DNA strands is known as {{c1::denaturation or melting}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The temperature at which half of the DNA double helices in a sample are separated into single strands is called the {{c1::melting temperature (Tm)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	G-C base pairing {{c1::increases::decreases/increases}} the melting temperature (Tm) of DNA due to the higher number of {{c1::hydrogen bonds}} compare…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Reannealing}} occurs when denatured DNA strands are returned to temperatures well below their Tm.
Published	11/14/2024	Reannealing speed is slower when the DNA strands are {{c1::longer::shorter/longer}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Reannealing speed is faster when the pH of the solution is near {{c1::7.4 (physiological pH)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Reannealing speed is {{c1::faster::slower/faster}} when the salt concentration in the solution is high.
Published	11/14/2024	Reannealing is {{c1::more::less/more}} stable when cations in the solution interact with the phosphate groups in DNA.
Published	11/14/2024	For DNA to be passed to daughter cells during cell division, it must first be {{c1::replicated}} during the {{c1::S}} phase of the cell cycle.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA replication is {{c1::semiconservative}}, meaning each new strand is synthesized using one original strand as a template.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA replication begins at specific sequences called {{c1::origins of replication}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In prokaryotes, DNA replication typically starts from (a) {{c1::single::single/multiple}} origin(s) of replication on the circular chromosome.
Published	11/14/2024	In eukaryotes, chromosomes have {{c1::multiple::single/multiple}} origin(s) of replication.
Published	11/14/2024	The enzyme {{c1::helicase}} unwinds the parent DNA helix at the origin of replication.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins}} hold the two DNA strands apart after helicase unwinds them.
Published	11/14/2024	The unwinding of DNA by helicase creates a {{c1::replication bubble}} and two {{c1::replication forks}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Topoisomerase}} reduces the strain caused by DNA supercoiling ahead of the replication fork.
Published	11/14/2024	The enzyme {{c1::primase}} synthesizes an RNA primer necessary for DNA synthesis.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA polymerase III}} synthesizes the new DNA strand by adding uncoupled dNTPs to the 3′ end of the growing strand.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA synthesis requires an {{c1::RNA primer}} because DNA polymerase can only attach nucleotides to an existing strand.
Published	11/14/2024	Each dNTP is composed of a {{c1::nitrogenous base}}, sugar and three phosphate groups.
Published	11/14/2024	During DNA synthesis, the 3′ {{c1::OH}} from the last nucleotide of the growing strand "attacks" the {{c1::5′ PO4}} group of the incoming dNTP.
Published	11/14/2024	The condensation reaction in DNA synthesis is an {{c1::exergonic process::endergonic/exergonic}} process, and the energy released is used to form a co…
Published	11/14/2024	When DNA synthesis is complete, {{c1::DNA polymerase I}} removes RNA primers and replaces them with DNA nucleotides.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA ligase}} catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds to join DNA fragments.
Published	11/14/2024	The replication of the {{c1::lagging}} strand is discontinuous due to the antiparallel orientation of the two DNA strands.
Published	11/14/2024	Short fragments of newly synthesized DNA on the lagging strand are called {{c1::Okazaki fragments}}.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA replication is faster in {{c1::prokaryotes::eukaryotes/prokaryotes}}, where the rate is approximately 1,000 nucleotides per second.
Published	11/14/2024	While synthesis of the leading and lagging strands occurs simultaneously, the lagging strand is synthesized at a {{c1::slightly slower::slower/faster}…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Helicase}} unwinds the DNA double helix to form the replication fork.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Primase}} synthesizes the RNA primer required for DNA replication.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA polymerase III}} performs 5′ to 3′ DNA synthesis during replication.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA polymerase I}} replaces RNA primers with DNA.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA ligase}} joins DNA fragments after the replacement of RNA primers.
Published	11/14/2024	Replicating the ends of a linear chromosome poses a problem because DNA polymerase requires a free {{c1::3′ end}} to incorporate a new dNTP into the d…
Published	11/14/2024	Chromosome shortening is not an issue in prokaryotes because their chromosomes are generally {{c1::circular}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Eukaryotes address the problem of chromosome shortening by adding noncoding DNA sequences called {{c1::telomeres}} to the ends of chromosomes.
Published	11/14/2024	Telomeres protect chromosomes from losing important DNA sequences as they become shorter with each round of {{c1::replication}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The enzyme {{c1::telomerase}} replenishes shortened telomere sequences on the ends of chromosomes in stem cells, germ cells, and some cancer cells.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA polymerases have a {{c1::proofreading}} function that improves replication accuracy by a factor of 100–1,000.
Published	11/14/2024	DNA polymerases possess {{c1::exonuclease}} activity, allowing them to remove bases from the end of a DNA strand.
Published	11/14/2024	The DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system is activated when a {{c1::base pair mismatch}} is detected immediately after replication.
Published	11/14/2024	In prokaryotes, the {{c1::methyl groups}} on the template strand distinguish it from the daughter strand, which lacks these modifications.
Published	11/14/2024	In eukaryotes, the MMR system identifies the newly synthesized DNA strand by recognizing {{c1::single-stranded breaks}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The MMR system requires {{c1::endonuclease}} activity to remove mismatched nucleotides from within an existing DNA strand.
Published	11/14/2024	After mismatched nucleotides are excised by MMR, {{c1::DNA polymerase::enzyme}} incorporates appropriate nucleotides, and {{c1::DNA ligase::enzyme}} r…
Published	11/14/2024	The nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway is activated when DNA damage is {{c1::extensive or bulky}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::nucleotide excision repair endonuclease}} enzymes remove the damaged region of DNA during nucleotide excision repair.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Thymine dimers}} are linkages between two thymine bases caused by UV radiation, leading to distortion of the DNA double helix.
Published	11/14/2024	The repair of double-stranded DNA breaks can occur through {{c1::homologous recombination}} if a corresponding chromosome is available as a template.
Published	11/14/2024	If no homologous template is available, double-stranded DNA breaks are repaired by {{c1::nonhomologous end joining}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Homologous recombination uses a {{c1::template}} for accurate DNA repair, while nonhomologous end joining does not, often resulting in {{c1::mutations…
Published	11/14/2024	Eukaryotic cells must package chromosomes densely within the nucleus because {{c1::DNA molecules are very long and need to fit into the limited space …
Published	11/14/2024	To address the problem of fitting long DNA molecules into the nucleus, eukaryotic cells condense DNA by packaging it with proteins to create {{c1::chr…
Published	11/14/2024	During the initial steps of chromatin formation, DNA wraps around a complex of eight histone proteins to form a {{c1::nucleosome}}.
Published	11/14/2024	A histone octamer core in a nucleosome is composed of two each of {{c1::H2A, H2B, H3, and H4}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Histone proteins have a net positive charge, allowing them to bind to the {{c1::negatively}} charged DNA.
Published	11/14/2024	In unwound chromatin, nucleosomes resemble beads on a string, with DNA between each "bead" called {{c1::linker DNA}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Chromatin may be configured loosely as {{c1::euchromatin}} or densely as {{c1::heterochromatin}} when DNA is not being actively replicated or transcri…
Published	11/14/2024	During cell division, chromatin becomes even more condensed in preparation for {{c1::mitosis}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Heterochromatin}} consists of DNA tightly coiled around histone proteins, making it less accessible to transcription machinery.
Published	11/14/2024	Euchromatin forms when histones are modified, often due to {{c1::acetylation}} of lysine residues.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Acetylation}} neutralizes the positive charge on lysine residues, reducing interactions between histones and DNA.
Published	11/14/2024	The expression of an organism's genetic code is dependent on the flow of information from {{c1::DNA}} to {{c1::RNA}} to proteins.
Published	11/14/2024	The expression of genes links an organism's genetic code (its {{c1::genotype}}) to its physical and biochemical attributes (its {{c1::phenotype}}).
Published	11/14/2024	According to the central dogma of molecular biology, gene expression can be divided into two stages: {{c1::transcription}} and {{c1::translation}}.
Published	11/14/2024	During {{c1::transcription}}, information stored in DNA is transcribed into RNA.
Published	11/14/2024	During {{c1::translation}}, mRNA is decoded by a ribosome with the help of {{c1::tRNA::type of RNA}} and {{c1::rRNA::type of RNA}}, resulting in a pro…
Published	11/14/2024	In eukaryotic organisms, transcription occurs in the {{c1::nucleus}}, and translation occurs in the {{c1::cytoplasm}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In prokaryotic organisms, transcription and translation are not separated by a nucleus because {{c1::prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The transcription of mRNA begins when the cell receives signals indicating that transcription should take place within defined boundaries called {{c1:…
Published	11/14/2024	The enzyme that synthesizes mRNA, {{c1::RNA polymerase II}}, assembles nucleotides in the 5′ to 3′ direction only, but unlike DNA polymerase, it {{c1:…
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::transcription initiation complex}} is formed when RNA polymerase II and general transcription factors bind to a specific nucleotide sequence c…
Published	11/14/2024	During transcription elongation, the {{c1::noncoding DNA strand (3′ to 5′)}}  is used as a template to build the mRNA molecule.
Published	11/14/2024	In prokaryotes, mRNA is immediately available for translation once transcription is complete, but in eukaryotes, mRNA must undergo {{c1::processing}} …
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::5′ cap}} added to pre-mRNA is a modified guanosine triphosphate (GTP) nucleotide called 7-methylguanosine (m7G).
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::poly-A tail}} adds to the 3′ end of mRNA functions to prevent mRNA degradation and facilitates export of mature mRNA from the nucleus to the…
Published	11/14/2024	In eukaryotes, the pre-mRNA transcript contains both coding regions ({{c1::exons}}) and noncoding regions ({{c1::introns}}).
Published	11/14/2024	The process of removing noncoding regions from pre-mRNA is called {{c1::RNA splicing}}.
Published	11/14/2024	RNA splicing is carried out by a molecular machine called the {{c1::spliceosome}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Alternative mRNA splicing allows for the synthesis of multiple distinct proteins (AKA {{c1::isoforms}}) from a single mRNA transcript.
Published	11/14/2024	The process of {{c1::transcription}} involves using DNA as a template to transcribe a copy of the genetic code into messenger {{c1::RNA (mRNA)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Translation is a complex process where information encoded in mRNA (a nucleic acid) is transformed into a {{c1::protein::macromolecule}}.
Published	11/14/2024	There are {{c1::20}} different types of amino acids in proteins, and {{c1::four}} types of nucleotides in RNA {{c1::(A, G, C, and U)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	A combination of three nucleotides, termed a {{c1::codon}}, specifies a particular amino acid in a protein.
Published	11/14/2024	Translation reads the order of nucleotides in the form of codons in the mRNA transcript to specify the order of {{c1::amino acids}} in the growing pro…
Published	11/14/2024	The translation machinery recognizes and begins translation at a specific set of three nucleotides known as the {{c1::start codon (AUG)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Frame shifts}} can occur if translation starts with the wrong nucleotide grouping, leading to incorrect protein synthesis.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Stop codons (UGA, UAG, or UAA)}} specify where translation ends, preventing further amino acids from being added to the protein chain.
Published	11/14/2024	Each codon in the mRNA corresponds to a specific amino acid, and this match is facilitated by {{c1::transfer RNA (tRNA)}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::anticodon}} is a three-nucleotide sequence in tRNA that is complementary to a specific mRNA codon.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Wobble pairing}} allows for non-Watson-Crick base pairing in the third position of a codon, enabling one tRNA to pair with multiple codons.
Published	11/14/2024	Like mRNA, tRNA molecules are transcribed from a DNA template in the nucleus, but they are transcribed by {{c1::RNA polymerase III}}. After transcript…
Published	11/14/2024	The enzyme {{c1::aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase}} attaches the correct amino acid to its designated tRNA via an ester linkage.
Published	11/14/2024	Once an amino acid has been joined to its corresponding tRNA, the tRNA is {{c1::charged}} and ready to deliver its amino acid to the growing protein c…
Published	11/14/2024	The genetic code is considered {{c1::degenerate}} because multiple codons can code for the same amino acid, though each tRNA is assigned to a specific…
Published	11/14/2024	Like mRNA and tRNA, {{c1::rRNA}} must be transcribed from DNA in the nucleus.
Published	11/14/2024	In eukaryotes, rRNA genes are mostly transcribed by {{c1::RNA polymerase I}} and are processed in the {{c1::nucleolus}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::P site}} in the large ribosomal subunit holds the tRNA carrying the growing protein chain.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::A site}} in the large ribosomal subunit holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::E site}} in the large ribosomal subunit is where the discharged tRNA leaves the ribosome after transferring its amino acid.
Published	11/14/2024	During translation initiation, the small (40S) ribosomal subunit binds to a specific initiator tRNA carrying the amino acid {{c1::methionine AKA start…
Published	11/14/2024	The first step of the elongation cycle: {{c1::Base pairing occurs between the mRNA codon and the anticodon of the incoming tRNA.}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In the second step of the elongation cycle: After base pairing occurs between the mRNA codon and the anticodon of a tRNA in the ribosome's A site, {{c…
Published	11/14/2024	The third step of the elongation cycle: After peptide bond formation between growing protein and the amino acid attached to the tRNA in the A site, {{…
Published	11/14/2024	The fourth step of the elongation cycle: After the empty tRNA in the P site is translocated to the E site and the tRNA containing the growing protein …
Published	11/14/2024	The elongation process continues until the ribosome reaches a {{c1::stop codon (UGA, UAG, UAA)}} within the mRNA at the A site.
Published	11/14/2024	During translation, when a stop codon is encountered, a {{c1::release factor}} binds to the codon in the {{c1::A site}}, leading to the termination of…
Published	11/14/2024	During termination of translation, after the protein is released, dissociation of the ribosome requires additional protein release factors and {{c1::G…
Published	11/14/2024	Proteins destined for secretion or specific cellular locations contain a {{c1::signal peptide}}, a sequence of ~20 amino acids near the protein's…
Published	11/14/2024	As a protein emerges from a ribosome, it adopts its final three-dimensional structure through {{c1::protein folding}} with the assistance of {{c1::mol…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Ubiquitin}} is a small regulatory protein tag that plays a role in membrane trafficking and the timing of protein degradation.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Proteolytic processing}} involves enzymatic cleavage of an inactive precursor protein to create an active protein, as in the case of pepsin from…
Published	11/14/2024	Mutagens are chemical, physical, or biological agents that can lead to {{c1::DNA mutations}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In multicellular organisms, mutations are passed to the next generation only if they occur in {{c1::gametes}} or precursors to {{c1::gametes}} (germli…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Point mutations}} result from the replacement of a single nucleotide and its complementary partner with a different pair of nucleotides.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Missense mutations}} are substitutions within the open reading frame (ORF) of a gene that cause a different amino acid to be placed into the pro…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Missense}} mutations involve a single base pair change that gives rise to a different amino acid.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Nonsense}} mutations involve a single base pair change that gives rise to a stop codon, resulting in a shortened protein.
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::silent mutation}} occurs when a mutation does not result in an amino acid change in the protein produced.
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::frameshift mutation}} occurs due to the addition or removal of nucleotides that is not in multiples of three, resulting in a new reading frame…
Published	11/14/2024	An {{c1::insertion}} mutation involves the addition of one or more base pairs into the DNA sequence.
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::deletion}} mutation involves the removal of one or more base pairs from the DNA sequence.
Published	11/14/2024	An {{c1::in-frame mutation}} involves the insertion or deletion of three nucleotides, leading to the incorporation or removal of an amino acid without…
Published	11/14/2024	A subset of genes called {{c1::housekeeping genes}} are constitutively expressed and are required for the maintenance of basic cellular functions.
Published	11/14/2024	The difference between two cell types in a multicellular organism is due to which specific genes are {{c1::expressed}} in each.
Published	11/14/2024	Chromatin exists in two different conformations: a closed form known as {{c1::heterochromatin}} and an open form called {{c1::euchromatin}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Histone acetylation}} promotes the formation of euchromatin, making DNA more accessible to transcription machinery.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Histone deacetylase}} enzymes downregulate gene expression by removing acetyl groups from histones, promoting a denser heterochromatin conformat…
Published	11/14/2024	The addition of methyl groups to cytosine nucleotides by {{c1::DNA methyltransferases}} is associated with {{c1::decreased::decreased/increased}} tran…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Epigenetic inheritance}} refers to the passing of chromatin modifications and DNA methylation patterns to future generations.
Published	11/14/2024	Gene methylation patterns are usually maintained through DNA replication and are passed to daughter cells, contributing to {{c1::genomic imprinting}} …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Enhancers}} are specific regulatory DNA sequences that contain clusters of DNA binding sites for transcription factors and can be located far fr…
Published	11/14/2024	Transcription factors have two types of structural domains: a {{c1::DNA-binding domain}} and an {{c1::activation domain}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Transcription repressors inhibit transcription initiation by {{c1::competing with transcription activators for binding sites}} within an enhancer or b…
Published	11/14/2024	Flagging a protein for destruction involves the addition of a series of {{c1::ubiquitin}} proteins that are covalently linked to form a {{c1::polyubiq…
Published	11/14/2024	When a protein becomes polyubiquitinated, it is recognized by a molecular machine known as a {{c1::proteasome}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs)}} refer to RNA molecules that do not code for tRNA, rRNA, or proteins but play major roles in gene regulation.
Published	11/14/2024	The major functional difference between siRNA and miRNA is that {{c1::siRNA}} molecules are highly specific and regulate a single mRNA target, whereas…
Published	11/14/2024	An ncRNA-protein complex interacts with an mRNA molecule to either trigger {{c1::mRNA degradation}} or block {{c1::mRNA translation}}.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Quantitative}} variables have numerical values that represent quantities, such as length or the number of offspring produced.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Categorical variables}} have values assigned to distinct categories based on some characteristic, such as blood type or educational level.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Continuous quantitative variables}} can assume a potentially infinite number of numerical values obtained by performing measurements, such as he…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Discrete quantitative variables}} take on only certain numerical values, determined by counting, such as the number of vertebrae.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Nominal categorical variables}} describe characteristics grouped into categories that do not have a natural order, such as blood type.
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Ordinal categorical variables}} describe characteristics grouped into categories with an intrinsic order, such as educational level (low, medium…
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::type I error}} occurs when researchers mistakenly reject the null hypothesis (false-positive), and its probability is represented by {{c1::α}}…
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::type II error}} occurs when researchers mistakenly fail to reject the null hypothesis (false-negative), and its probability is represented by …
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Statistical power}} is the probability that a test will correctly reject the null hypothesis when a true effect exists, and is equal to {{c1::1 …
Published	11/14/2024	Numerical values that describe samples are referred to as {{c1::statistics}}, whereas numerical values that describe populations are called {{c1::para…
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::confidence interval}} provides a range of values within which an unknown population parameter is likely found, based on a specified confidence…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::confidence level}} represents the percentage of repeated random samples that would generate confidence intervals containing the true populat…
Published	11/14/2024	Confidence intervals can be calculated using {{c1::standard error (SE)}}, which measures the reliability of a sample statistic, such as the sample mea…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Experimental validity}} measures the extent to which an experiment tests what it is intended to test and how well the results represent the true…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Internal validity}} refers to the extent to which the observed effects in an experiment can be attributed to the factor being studied, rather th…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::External validity}} pertains to the suitability of applying experimental findings to a more generalized context.
Published	11/14/2024	Internal and external validity tend to be  {{c1::negatively::negatively/positively}} correlated
Published	11/14/2024	The order of nucleotides in a DNA strand is called the {{c1::DNA sequence}}, and determining this order is referred to as {{c1::DNA sequencing}}.
Published	11/14/2024	In the Sanger method, DNA sequencing involves mixing small amounts of {{c1::ddNTPs}} with denatured DNA, an excess of dNTPs, DNA polymerase, and a pri…
Published	11/14/2024	ddNTPs lack {{c1::a hydroxyl group}} at both the 2′ and 3′ carbons, causing {{c1::termination}} of DNA strand elongation during Sanger dideoxy method …
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::blocking group}} in next-generation sequencing temporarily prevents the addition of further nucleotides after each labeled dNTP is incorpora…
Published	11/14/2024	The {{c1::removable fluorescent tag and blocking group}} in next-generation sequencing allows the template strands to be reused over many rounds of el…
Published	11/14/2024	The first cycle number at which fluorescence exceeds background levels in qPCR is called the {{c1::cycle threshold (Ct)}} and is related to the initia…
Published	11/14/2024	Restriction enzymes are endonucleases that {{c1::cut double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) at nonterminal sites}}.
Published	11/14/2024	The sequence recognized and cut by a restriction enzyme is called the {{c1::restriction site}}.
Published	11/14/2024	Restriction enzymes can create 2 types of cuts: {{c1::blunt ends (even cuts)}} or {{c1::sticky ends (uneven cuts with single-stranded segments)}} in d…
Published	11/14/2024	Gene cloning often involves cutting plasmid DNA with a restriction enzyme and inserting a DNA fragment to create {{c1::recombinant DNA}}.
Published	11/14/2024	After the DNA fragment is added, plasmids are introduced into bacterial cells, and the cells are stimulated to take up the plasmids through a process …
Published	11/14/2024	An {{c1::antibiotic resistance gene}} is often inserted into the plasmid along with the gene of interest to aid in selecting bacterial cells that have…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Complementary DNA (cDNA)}} refers to DNA generated from an RNA template, typically mRNA, representing the genetic information necessary for gene…
Published	11/14/2024	The enzyme {{c1::reverse transcriptase}} is used in the process of generating cDNA, synthesizing the first cDNA strand by using mRNA as a template and…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Exons}} are the coding regions of a gene that are expressed as proteins, while {{c1::introns}} are the noncoding regions that are removed during…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::DNA libraries}} are collections of cloned DNA fragments that facilitate the study of specific DNA regions rather than entire chromosomes.
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::genomic DNA library}} is created by breaking chromosomal DNA into fragments, each of which is cloned into plasmids and amplified in recipient …
Published	11/14/2024	A {{c1::cDNA library}} is generated from mRNA that is reverse transcribed into cDNA, cloned into plasmids, and amplified in recipient cells.
Published	11/14/2024	In DNA electrophoresis, DNA samples are loaded into wells near the {{c1::cathode (negative electrode)}}, and DNA molecules migrate toward the {{c1::an…
Published	11/14/2024	During DNA electrophoresis, smaller DNA molecules migrate {{c1::longer distances}} through the gel, while larger molecules migrate {{c1::shorter dista…
Published	11/14/2024	A standard DNA sample, often called a {{c1::ladder}}, is loaded in one lane of the gel to allow size estimation of sample DNA molecules by comparison.
Published	11/14/2024	The bands produced during electrophoresis can be visualized using {{c1::ethidium bromide}}, which inserts between nucleic acid bases and fluoresces un…
Published	11/14/2024	{{c1::Southern blotting}} uses a nucleic acid probe to detect specific DNA sequences after DNA bands have been separated by electrophoresis and transf…
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