Notes in PHYL 2041 (Exam 2)

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Published	11/04/2023	Describe the nature of sounds. How do sounds propagate in air? How is sound volume and pitch reflected in a sound wave? What is the phase of a sound w…
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how sound intensity and frequency is measured. How does the sound intensity threshold and the pain threshold vary with sound frequency? How do…
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the difference between natural sounds and pure tones. How are natural sounds analysed by the auditory system?
Published	11/04/2023	Identify the components of the external ear and their respective functions in hearing
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the sequence of events during sound transmission in the middle ear. What is the function of the middle ear?
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss the function of the tensor tympani and the stapedius muscles. How is the activity of these muscles regulated?
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate the structure of the inner ear (Cochlea), describing the locations of scala vestibuli, scala tympani, scala media, oval window, round windo…
Published	11/04/2023	Which of the cochlear ducts contain endolymph and perilymph, respectively? How does the composition of endolymph and perilymph differ?
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the structure of the Organ of Corti using the terms outer hair cells, inner hair cells, stereo-cilia, basilar membrane, tectorial membrane, p…
Published	11/04/2023	Outline how vibrations of the oval window lead to a local displacement of the basilar membrane.
Published	11/04/2023	How is the displacement of the basilar membrane dependent on the pitch of the sound and why? What is tonotopy?
Published	11/04/2023	Delineate how displacements of the basilar membrane lead to deflections of hair cell stereocilia
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the receptor potentials in hair cells created by deflection of the stereocilia. How does the orientaIon of the deflection relative to the lar…
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate how stereocilia deflections lead to membrane depolarization and hyperpolarization of hair cells. Which ion current causes the depolarizatio…
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss differences in the innervation and function of inner hair cells and outer hair cells. What are otoacoustic emissions and how can they be utili…
Published	11/04/2023	Delineate the mechanisms underlying conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. How can these two types of hearing loss be distinguished? How can heari…
Published	11/04/2023	Identify the main relay stations of the auditory pathway. Which of these structures receives input from both ears?
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate how sound intensity is encoded in the activity of spiral ganglion cells. Describe the sensitivity of individual spiral ganglion cells to so…
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how sound pitch, or frequency, is encoded in the activity of spiral ganglion cells. How are cochlear nuclei organized with respect to sound fr…
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate differences in the encoding of high-frequency sounds and low-frequency sounds
Published	11/04/2023	Explain how the auditory system localizes low-frequency and high-frequency sounds in the horizontal plane. How is sound localization performed in the …
Published	11/04/2023	Delineate innervation and organization of the primary higher-order auditory cortex. Describe the quality of auditory stimuli leading to the activation…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:Sound volume corresponds to the __________ of the sound wave.The frequency of the sound wave reflects the _________ of the sound.Inf…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:The complex folds in the pinna function in _________________________.The function of the middle ear is ___________________…
Published	11/04/2023	IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURES IN THE COCHLEA:
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:In the cochlea, vibrations of the oval window elicit pressure waves in the ____________ (fluid) filling the _______________ (duct) a…
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how hair cells transduce deflections of their stereocilia intochanges in glutamate release onto afferents of spiral ganglion cells
Published	11/04/2023	How do inner hair cells and outer hair cells differ in their main function?
Published	11/04/2023	INDENTIFY THE STRUCTURES FOUND IN THE AUDITORY PATHWAY:
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how sound intensity and sound pitch is encoded in the activity of the auditory nerve.
Published	11/04/2023	Which auditory center processes auditory information to determine the location of sound sources? What mechanisms are utilized to determine the locatio…
Published	11/04/2023	What are the functions of the vestibular system? Describe the movements the vestibular system can detect.
Published	11/04/2023	Identify the vestibular structures detecting translational horizontal and vertical as well as angular accelerations. How is the labyrinth innervated?
Published	11/04/2023	Define bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth and identify the fluids that fill these structures.
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the structure of the semicircular canals using the terms ampulla, crista, and cupula.
Published	11/04/2023	How are the semicircular canals oriented with respect to the other semicircular canals in the same ear as well as the ones in the other ear?
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how head rotations lead to receptor potentials in the hair cells of the semicircular canals. How do receptor potentials in hair cells lead to …
Published	11/04/2023	Characterize the activity of vestibular neurons during head rotations in either direction within the plane of the semicircular canal or when the does …
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate the structure of the otolith organs using the terms macula, otolith membrane, and otoconia.
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how linear accelerations of the head or head tilt elicit receptor potentials in the hair cells of the otolithic organs and to action potential…
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the direction selectivity of hair cells within the macula of one otolithic organ. Outline to which linear accelerations vestibular neurons in…
Published	11/04/2023	To which structures in the brain do primary vestibular neurons project? Which projections do neurons in the vestibular nuclei receive? To which struct…
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate the neuronal pathway underlying the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). What is the function of this reflex? Define the term physiological nyst…
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss how the VOR can be used to identify brain lesions in unconscious patients. How do lesions at the level of the brain stem or at the level of th…
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the neuronal pathways underlying the vestibulocervical reflex (VCR) and the vestibulospinal reflex (VSR). What are the functions of VCR and VS…
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the neuronal connections of the vestibulocerebellum. What function does this structure have?
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss structures in the thalamus and neocortex that receive vestibular information, and the connections these structures receive. What is their func…
Published	11/04/2023	Outline potential causes of vestibular dysfunction.
Published	11/04/2023	Describe symptoms of acute unilateral and bilateral vestibular dysfunction. Discuss the outcome of a persistent, chronic unilateral vestibular dysfunc…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:The vestibular system detects _____________________ and ______________________.The membranous labyrinth consists of ________________…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:Neurons in vestibular nuclei receive ____________ input.Rapid reflexes are mediated by neurons in the  _______________&nbs…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:Compared to the auditory cortex, the vestibular cortex is different because it ___________________________________________.Vestibula…
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the function of the gustatory system and the basic taste qualities, or chemical compounds, it detects.
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the structure of taste buds, including the orientation of taste receptor cells relative to the oral cavity and innervating afferent fibers. Wh…
Published	11/04/2023	Discuss the localization number of taste buds in the epithelium of the tongue and elaborate on the sensitivity and specificity of the three types of p…
Published	11/04/2023	Characterize the receptors mediating sweet, umami and bitter tastes. To which receptor class do they belong? How does their composition differ? In whi…
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate the signal transduction pathway leading to receptor potentials in taste receptor cells for sweet, umami and bitter taste qualities, and to…
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the signal transduction pathway in receptor cells for salty taste and describe how receptor potentials in these cells lead to action potential…
Published	11/04/2023	Delineate the signal transduction pathway leading to receptor potentials in receptor cells for sour taste, and to action potentials in the gustatory n…
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the organization of the axons of gustatory neurons innervating taste buds in the epithelium of tongue, pharynx and epiglottis in cranial nerv…
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate the neuronal pathways generating conscious experiences of taste, and in autonomic reflexes triggered by taste stimuli.
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the function of the olfactory system. Which chemical compounds are detected? Discuss variations in the sensitivity of the olfactory system to…
Published	11/04/2023	Delineate the structure and location of the olfactory epithelium, describe its cell types, and its important accessory components
Published	11/04/2023	Outline the structure and functional mechanism of olfactory receptor neurons. How do they differ from gustatory receptor cells?
Published	11/04/2023	Characterize the receptors activated by odorants. To which receptor class do they belong? How many olfactory receptor proteins exist and what is their…
Published	11/04/2023	Illustrate the signal transduction pathway leading to receptor potentials in olfactory receptor neurons.
Published	11/04/2023	Delineate the structural organization of the olfactory bulb. Identify the neurons receiving synaptic contacts of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) and…
Published	11/04/2023	Describe two pathways of olfactory information to (a) the olfactory cortex and (b) the orbitofrontal cortex. Which function do these pathways have?&nb…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:The function of the gustatory system is to ___________________________.The five basic taste qualities detected by characterized tast…
Published	11/04/2023	How does the transduction from salty and sour stimuli differ from the transduction of sweet, bitter, and umami stimuli?
Published	11/04/2023	IDENTIFY THE ANATOMY OF THE GUSTATORY PATHWAY:
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:Unlike compounds activating taste receptors, odourants are ________________________.The olfactory epithelium contains ______________…
Published	11/04/2023	How does olfactory transduction differ from taste transduction of sweet, bitter and umami tastes? Things to consider:- Receptor proteins and their exp…
Published	11/04/2023	FILL IN THE BLANK:Olfactory receptor neurons form synaptic connections with _________________ in glomeruli of the olfactory bulb.Each glomerulus recei…
Published	11/04/2023	Neuroeffector Junction vs Neuromuscular Junction
Published	11/04/2023	Multiunit Smooth Muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Unitary Smooth Muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Relaxation of smooth muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Cross Bridge Cycling in Smooth Muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Excitation-contraction Coupling in Smooth Muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Factors that induce smooth muscle contraction
Published	11/04/2023	Store-operated calcium entry (SOCE)
Published	11/04/2023	Smooth muscle SR
Published	11/04/2023	Smooth muscle sarcolemma
Published	11/04/2023	Structure of smooth muscle
Published	11/04/2023	What are the 2 main functions of the smooth muscle?
Published	11/04/2023	What are the 2 types of smooth muscle?
Published	11/04/2023	Basic organization of smooth muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Explain the 6 steps of the cardiac conduction system and heart contraction
Published	11/04/2023	How do cardiac muscles relax?
Published	11/04/2023	RyRs in Ca2+ signaling: Calcium sparks
Published	11/04/2023	ER/SE in Ca2+ signalling: Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR)
Published	11/04/2023	How does excitation-contraction coupling differ in cardiac muscles, compared to skeletal muscle?
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the firing of action potentials in contractile cells
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the formation of action potentials in conductive cells
Published	11/04/2023	What are contractile cells?
Published	11/04/2023	What are conducting cells?
Published	11/04/2023	What are the 2 types of cardiac muscles?
Published	11/04/2023	What are the similarities/differences in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and T-tubules in cardiac (contractile) muscle vs. skeletal muscle?
Published	11/04/2023	What are intercalated discs? What types of junctions are there? What are their roles?
Published	11/04/2023	Basic organization of cardiac (contractile) muscle
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:The sliding filament mechanism of skeletal musclecontraction involves:A. Actin and myosin filaments sliding past each other but not sh…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE QUESTION:Which of the following proteins binds calcium in the lumen of the skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum?A. CalsequestrinB. Ryanodin…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:In skeletal muscle:A. Binding of ATP to actin dissociates myosin bound cross-bridges, allowing bridges to repeat their cycle of activi…
Published	11/04/2023	How does stimulation frequency modulate the force of contraction? What is tetany? What is temporal summation?
Published	11/04/2023	How does motor unit recruitment modulate the force of contraction? What is spatial summation?
Published	11/04/2023	What are the classifications of motor units?
Published	11/04/2023	What is the motor unit?
Published	11/04/2023	What are the different skeletal muscle types?
Published	11/04/2023	Muscle energy replenishment by aerobic pathway
Published	11/04/2023	Muscle energy replenishment by anaerobic pathway
Published	11/04/2023	Muscle energy replenishment by direct phosphorylation
Published	11/04/2023	Roles of ATP in skeletal muscle contraction
Published	11/04/2023	What happens when a muscle contracts in the context of sliding myofilaments?
Published	11/04/2023	4 steps to Cross-bridge cycle
Published	11/04/2023	6 steps of excitation-contraction coupling
Published	11/04/2023	What is a ryanodine receptor (RyR)? What types are there and where are they primarily expressed?
Published	11/04/2023	Dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR)
Published	11/04/2023	Calcium and skeletal muscle contraction
Published	11/04/2023	What is the sequence in excitation-contraction coupling?
Published	11/04/2023	What are transverse tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum? What re their Ca2+ channels? What happens when they interact?
Published	11/04/2023	What is α-actinin?
Published	11/04/2023	What is nebulin?
Published	11/04/2023	What is titin (also known as connectin)?
Published	11/04/2023	What is dystrophin? What is caused by a defect of it?
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the components of thin filaments (actin, tropomyosin, troponin)
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the components of thick filaments (myosin)
Published	11/04/2023	How is myosin and actin arranged? What is a sarcomere?
Published	11/04/2023	How is muscle fiber organized?
Published	11/04/2023	What are the tendon and connective tissues made up of?
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the organization of the skeletal muscle, using the terms endomysium, fascicle, perimysium, epimysium, and tendon. What is a myotend…
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the differences between the skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle, in terms of their properties, location, and function
Published	11/04/2023	Describe the general organization of skeletal muscle
Published	11/04/2023	Spinal cord location
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:Which of the following statements is TRUE for cardiac but NOT for skeletal muscle?A. Action potentials lead to muscle contraction.B. I…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:Which of the following statements is TRUE?A. Ca2+ influx through voltage-gated Ca2+ channels at the T-tubule is directly coupled with …
Published	11/04/2023	MULTISELECT:Select ALL proteins that play a critical role in contraction of smooth but not skeletal muscle?A. CalmodulinB. TroponinC. Myosin light cha…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:Which characteristic or component is shared by skeletal muscle and smooth muscle?A. Thick and thin filaments arranged in sarcomeresB. …
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:Intracellular calcium concentration in smooth muscle can be elevated by all the following mechanisms EXCEPT:A. Opening of inositol tri…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTISELECT:Which of the following is unique to cardiac muscle tissue?A. Contractile cells have a sustained depolarization plateau that is produced by…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:Which of the following is unique to cardiac muscle tissue?A. it has intercalated discsB. it is not striatedC. it is involuntaryD. it d…
Published	11/04/2023	MULTIPLE CHOICE:Cardiac muscle:A. Does not have motor units.B. Does not have voltage-activated calciumchannels.C. Does not have T-tubules.D. Does not …
Published	11/04/2023	Comparisons between efferent somatic and autonomic nervous systems (Control, # of neurons in pathway, effectors, NT and receptor)
Published	11/04/2023	Muscle unit
Published	11/04/2023	Types of somatic motor neurons and their targets
Published	11/04/2023	What types of neurons do motor units contain? Which muscle fibers do they activate?
Published	11/04/2023	Comparison of α-motor neurons and γ-motor neurons (Size, target, innervation, contraction, and function)
Published	11/04/2023	Muscle spindles; Location? Function? Composition?
Published	11/04/2023	Innervation of muscle spindles
Published	11/04/2023	How do muscle spindles detect changes in muscle length?
Published	11/04/2023	How are y motor neurons involved in the muscle spindle reflex?
Published	11/04/2023	Spinal reflexes
Published	11/04/2023	What are the 3 well-known spinal reflexes?
Published	11/04/2023	Stretch (myotatic) reflex; What type of reflex is it? What is it activated by? What are its sensory receptors, interneurons, and effectors? What is it…
Published	11/04/2023	Golgi tendon reflex (inverse myotatic or group Ib reflex); What type of reflex is it? What is it activated by? WHat are its sensory receptors, interne…
Published	11/04/2023	Golgi tendon organ
Published	11/04/2023	Flexion reflex; What type of reflex is it? What is it activated by? What is its sensory receptor, interneurons, and effectors? What is its function?
Published	11/15/2023	Muscle tone
Published	11/15/2023	List the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th order neuron for both the dorsal column-medial lemniscus system and the anterolateral system
Published	11/15/2023	What is the difference between the dorsal horn and ventral horn?
Published	11/08/2023	What is the difference between the dorsal root and ventral root?
Published	11/08/2023	What is the difference between the ventral ramus and dorsal ramus?
Published	11/08/2023	What are the 2 enlargements in the spinal cord?
Published	11/08/2023	What are the 4 spinocerebellar pathways?
Published	11/08/2023	What is kinesthesia? What is its pathway?
Published	11/08/2023	Provide a summary of ascending pathways (dorsal column, anterolateral, and spinocerebellar), by its nerve types (1st neuron), decussation site (2nd ne…
Published	11/08/2023	Somatomotor cortex
Published	11/08/2023	Upper vs. lower motoneurons; How do they synapse?
Published	11/08/2023	Classification of motor pathways
Published	11/08/2023	Lateral pathways; Where are their upper and lowere motoneurons found? Where is the decussation site? What are their functions?
Published	11/08/2023	Medial pathways that originate in the motor cortex; Where are their upper and lower motoneurons found? Where is the decussation site? What are their f…
Published	11/08/2023	Medial pathways that originate in the brainstem; Where are their upper and lower motoneurons found? Where is the decussation site? What are their func…
Published	11/08/2023	Motor deficits caused by lesions of descending motor pathways; What are the causes? What are the symptoms?
Published	11/21/2023	Neuronal Pathways Associated with the Brainstem; Neuronal pathways passing through the brainstem vs. Originating in the brainstem
Published	11/21/2023	What are postural reflexes? What are its two types?
Published	11/21/2023	What are the 2 overall functions of postural reflexes?
Published	11/21/2023	How is the brainstem involved in vestibular reflexes?
Published	11/21/2023	How is the brainstem involved in tonic neck reflexes?
Published	11/21/2023	How is the brainstem involved in righting reflexes?
Published	11/21/2023	Neuronal Circuitry of Postural Reflexes (Reflex arc)
Published	11/21/2023	Brainstem control of locomotion
Published	11/21/2023	Cortical motor areas
Published	11/21/2023	What inputs do the cortical motor areas recieve?
Published	11/21/2023	What outputs do motor cortical areas do?
Published	11/21/2023	Celebellar gross anatomy
Published	11/21/2023	Cellular Elements and Organization of the Cerebellar Cortex
Published	11/21/2023	Cerebellar Cortical Circuitry
Published	11/21/2023	Activity of Purkinje Cells in the Cerebellar Cortex in the Context of Motor Coordination
Published	11/21/2023	Communication between Cerebellum and Other Structures
Published	11/21/2023	Cerebellar functions
Published	11/21/2023	Disorders of the cerebellum
Published	11/21/2023	Organization of the Basal Ganglia; Components, output, function
Published	11/21/2023	Motor Control by the Basal Ganglia; Input, Output, and circuit within the basal ganglia
Published	11/21/2023	Diseases of the basal ganglia
Published	11/21/2023	What are the differences between Parkinson's and Huntington's disease?
Published	11/21/2023	Where do apraxia, hyperkinetic/hypokinetic disorders, and ataxia happen, respectively?
Published	11/23/2023	Autonomic Nervous System; Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic
Published	11/23/2023	Sympathetic Division of the ANS
Published	11/23/2023	Adrenal Gland
Published	11/23/2023	Chromaffin cells
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